THE 

' DICTIONARY "^^ 

OF 

EDUCATION AND INSTRUCTION: 

A Reference Book and Manual on the 
THEORY AND PRACTICE OF TEACHING, 

FOR THE USE OF 

Parents, Teachers, and Others; 

BASED UPON THE 

CYCLOPEDIA OF EDUCATION. 

/ BY 

HENRY KIDDLE and A. J. SCHEM. 

r 

(A . ^ ^L-- 



NEW YORK: 
E. STEIGER & CO. 

1881. 




Special attention is invited to tlie following publications: 

The Cyclopaedia of Education. A Dictionary of Information for 
the use of Teachers, School- Officers, Parents, and Others. Edited by Henkt 
KiDDiiE and Alexander J. Schem. One large volume, 8vo. In Paper 
Cover, uncut edges, $4.00 (also in 4 divisions at $1,00 each); bound in 
Cloth $5.00 — and uniform with the volumes of Avpktoiis American 
Cyclopcedia, in Library Leather $6. 00; in Half Morocco $7.00; in Half 
Bussia, extra gilt $8.00; in Full Morocco, or Full Kussia, with gilt edges 
$10.00. 

The Year-Book of Education for 1878. Being an Annual Sup- 
plement to the Cyclopcedia of Education. Edited by Heney Kiddle and 
A. J. Schem. 8vo. Cloth $2.00. 

for 1879. Edited by Henkt Kiddle and A. J. Schem. 8vo. 

Cloth $2.00. 

In addition to editorial matter on the progress of education in America and foreign 
countries, each of these two volumes contains a list of Collegiate and Private Educa- 
tional Institutions in the United States and Canada, and other Catalogues and Lists of 
value and interest. 

Steiger's Educational Directory for 1878. 320 pp. 8vo. 
Limp cloth $1.50. 

Contents: Lists of Collegiate and Private Educational Institutions (United States, 
British Dominions, Germany, Austria). — Catalogues, etc.) 

J8^ A new edition for 1881-82 is in preparation. 

Education and General Philology. A Classified Descriptive 
Catalogue of American, British, German, French, arid other Foreigyi Publi- 
cations on Education and General Philology; together with Works of Reference. 
Teachers' Eand-hooks, etc., exclusive of Text-books. Edited by E. Steigek, 
48 pp. 8vo, Paper 10 Cts. net. 



Copyright, 1881, by E. Steiger & Co. 



NOTICE. 

Desirous of securing for the Dictionary of EdvA^ation 

and Instruction the widest possible circulation among 

teachers, school-officers, parents, and all progressive persons, 

the undersigned publishers invite propositions from booksellers, 

agents, and others intending to thoroughly canvass certain 

limited territory. 

E, STEIOER & CO. 



PREFACE. 

The Cyclopoedia of Education, the only publication of the kind in the 
English language, has now been before the public about four years, during 
which time this work has secured the unqualified approval of the most 
eminent and experienced educators and ofiicial authorities both in America 
and abroad. This is all the more satisfactory, as much of the commenda- 
tion bestowed has resulted from a careful study and constant use of the 
Cyclopaedia as an educational guide. 

But while the Cyclopcedia has been thus cordially welcomed and com- 
mended, a demand has been expressed, with increasing urgency, for a 
smaller work of a similar character, that, excluding matter of only occa- 
sional interest and value to the professional teacher, may contain solely 
what is of every-day need; and which maybe obtained at a moderate cost, 
and yet supply a large amount of information on a great variety of sub- 
jects, such as could be obtained only with considerable difficulty from large 
and expensive works. 

To meet this demand the Dictionary of Education and Instruction is 
now offered to teachers and all others interested in education and instruc- 
tion, — school-officers, parents, and the public in general. 

The Dictionary is, in the main, a compilation of the articles embraced 
in only one of the eight departments contained in the Cyclopaedia ; namely, 
those on the Theory of Education and Instruction (Pedagogy and Di- 
dactics) which are designed to comprehend a consideration of the principles 
of education, in each of its departments, with practical suggestions as to 
the best methods of applying them both in training and instruction. To 
adapt this class of articles, thus reproduced from the Cyclopaedia^ to the 
wider use now intended, they have been, as far as seemed necessary, ab- 
breviated, extended, or otherwise modified. In this way it is expected 
that the Dictionary will supply a convenient manual for study and refer- 
ence not only to teachers engaged in professional work, and in teachers' 
institutes, but likewise in normal schools in which it is designed to serve 
as a text-book on Theory and Practice. 

To facilitate the use of the Dictionary for this purpose, all the longer 
articles have been supplied with indented sub titles so as to enable the in- 
structor to conduct recitations on the subject, either by interrogating the 
student, or by requiring full statements from him on any of the topics thus 
indicated. 

The special objects designed to be attained by the publication of the 
i)«c<iow«rj/, more specifically stated, are: (1) to supply a brief compendium 
of the theory and practice of education in a series of clear and definite 
articles, alphabetically arranged so as to be easily referred to, or system- 
atically studied; (2) to encourage in this way the study by teachers of the 



IT 

principles and practice of their profession, thus giving to the work of edu- 
cation a greater degree of intelligence and efficiency; (3) to afford a con- 
venient class manual of pedagogy for use in normal schools and teachers' 
institutes as the basis of a course of instruction in principles and methods, 
not necessarily superseding other valuable manuals differently arranged, 
but accompanying and strengthening them; (4) to supply, at a small cost, 
to every teacher that portion of the Cyclopoedia which is of especial value 
in practical education, reserving this larger work for occasional reference, 
particularly when information regarding educational history, biography, 
and statistics is needed; and (5) to supply a useful hand-book to parents 
in the home education of their children. 

Of the character of the articles contained in this work but little need 
be here said, as they have already secured the highest encomiums for their 
philosophical and professional correctness, practical character, and literary 
excellence. This indeed was to have been anticipated, the writers being 
all practical educators of long experience and distinction in their profession. 
Among the contributors to the Cydopcedia whose articles have been 
drawn upon for use in this volume the following may be especially men- 
tioned: Professors Edw. Olney, of the University of Michigan; Francis A. 
March, of Lafayette College; David B. Scott, of the College of the City 
of New Tork; E. H. Day, of the New York Normal College; Charles 
T. HiMES, of Dickinson College, and J. M. D. Meiklejohn, Professor of 
Education in the College of St. Andrews, Scotland; also James Donaldson, 
LL. D., Kector of the Edinburgh High School; Thomas F. Harrison and 
Norman A. Calkins, Assistant Superintendents of Schools in the City of 
New York; and also the editors, Henry Kiddle, for many years chief 
Superintendent of the schools of the City, and for several years principal of 
the Normal School in the city of New York; and Professor A. J. Schem, 
also one of the Assistant Superintendents of the New York City Schools, 
and long and favorably known for his extensive scholarship, literary 
attainments, and numerous encyclopaedic, statistical, and other works.* 

Special attention is invited to the valuable list of educational works for 
professional study and reference prepared especially for the Dictionary by 
W. H. Payne, M. A., Professor of the Science and the Art of Teaching 
in the University of Michigan. 

The hope is here expressed that this book will be favorably received, 
and that it will prove the instrument of much good in elevating the teacher's 
profession, and in disseminating correct information in regard to the prin- 
ciples of education and instruction. 

New York, July 1st, 1881. 



* Prof. Schem deceased May 22d, while this work was passing through the press. 



ABACUS (Gr. af3a^, a slab or board), a piece of school apparatus, 
used to facilitate the teaching of children to count, and perform other 
simple arithmetical operations. Various forms of the abacus are employed 
as counting or adding machines. 

A-B-C BOOK, a primer, or little book used to learn the alphabet and 
its simplest combinations, with the most rudimental lessons in reading. 
(See Horn-Book.) 

A-B-C METHOD. See Alphabet Method. 

ABECEDARIAN. This word, formed from the names of the first 
four letters of the alphabet, is generally used to denote a pupil who has not 
advanced beyond the most elementary stage of school or book education, 
that is, who is learning A B C, or the alphabet. The name has been some- 
times applied to one engaged in teaching the alphabet. (See Reading, and 
Word 51ethod.) 

A-B-C SHOOTERS (Germ. ABC-Schutzen),Tpvii^ils of those scholastic 
vagrants who, during a certain period of the middle ages, and even later, 
used to wander through many parts of Germany, giving instruction to 
such pupils as they could pick up, who accompanied them in their jour- 
neyings. These pupils were often obliged to purloin food, fowls, etc., to 
supply their masters' wants, and hence were called, partly in derision of 
their elementary knowledge, A-B-C Shooters — shoot, in their parlance, 
being the slang word for steal. 

ABSENTEEISM is opposed to regularity in the attendance of pu- 
pils belonging to a school. The number of school sessions from which a 
pupil was absent, as compared with the number at which he was 
f d present, during any particular period, gives the absenteeism of 
joun . ^j^^ pupil for that period. The average daily attendance of pu- 
pils divided by the average daily enrollment — the "average number be- 
longing" — shows the percentage of attendance; and this subtracted from 
100 gives, of course, the percentage of absenteeism. Within certain limits, 
this is a criterion of efficiency of management and instruction, since 
teachers who interest their pupils necessarily secure a more re- 
Test of g^iar attendance than those who fail in this respect. Where the 
e^fficiency. ^^^j^g f^j. computing the degree of absenteeism is the average 
enrollment, and where regularity of attendance is made a test of efficient 
management, teachers will be more careful to keep the number of pupils 
on the rolls as little as possible above the average attendance. Hence, to 
render this test reliable, a uniform rule should be followed in the 
Uniform (jigeharging of pupils for non-attendance. Such a rule has been 
' " ^^* adopted in many cities of the Union, any pupil's name being in- 
variably dropped from the roll after a certain number of days of absence, 
however caused. 'I'his is based on the principle that irregular attendance 
is not only of no profit to the pupil concerned, but a positive injury to 
the other pupils of the school or class, and is, moreover, a serious hindrance 
and embarrassment to the teacher. 



2 ABSTRACT AND CONCRETE — ACADEMY 

ABSTRACT AND CONCRETE. These terms have a very im- 
portant application in many departments of practical education. Abstract 
DefinUion. ^^^ reference to general ideas, or the ideas of qualities considered 
' apart from the things to which they belong; concrete, to those 
which are only conceived as belonging to particular objects or substances. 
Thus, if we speak of a man, a horse, a tree, etc., we use abstract or general 
ideas; for we are not thinking of any particular object of the class, but 
only of the assemblage of qualities or characteristics that especially belong 
to^ all the members of the class. But when we mention such names as 
Cicero, Washington, John Smith, etc., we have in our mind a conception 
of the characteristics that distinguish those persons from all other men. 
Thus, the expressions Jive x>ouncls, a true statement , an honest man 
represent concrete ideas; the words five, truth, honesty, abstract ones. 
Distinction "^^^ immature minds of young children employ to a great 
in educa- extent concrete ideas, and hence the instruction addressed 
tion. especially to them should deal principally with these. As the 
mind advances, it becomes more and more occupied with ab- 
stract conceptions, whicih constitute the material for all the higher forms 
of thought and ratiocination, 

ACADEMY (Gr. 'AKaSI/juia or ' AKaSr^jueia) was originally the name of 
Origin. ^ pleasure ground near Athens, and was said to be so called 
after Academus, a local hero at the time of the Trojan war. Its 
shady walks became a favorite resort for Plato: and, as he was accustomed 
to lecture here to his pupils and friends, the school of philosophers which 
Academy ^^^^ founded by him was called the Acade77iic School, or mere- 
of Flato ^^ ^^^ Academij. During the middle ages the term was bub 
little used for learned institutions; but, after the revival of 
classical studies in the 15th century, it again became frequent. In a 
wider sense, it was sometimes applied to higher institutions of learning in 
How g^^^ral- Gradually, however, its use was, in most countries, 

applied restricted to special schools, as academies of mining, of com- 
merce, of forestry, of fine arts, and, especially, of music. In 
England and the United States, the national high schools for the edu- 
cation of military and naval officers are called academies. I'hus, England 
has the Naval Academy at Portsmouth, and the Royal Military Academy 
at Woolwich; and the United States, the Military Academy at West 
Point, and the Naval Academy at Annapolis. In the United States, the 
name has also been assumed by a large number of secondary schools, which 
are designed to prepare their pupils for colleges, or to impart a general 
knowledge of the common and higher branches of education. 
ArrDlied to • "^^^ ^^™^ academy is also employed to designate an asso- 
learned ^^^^^^^ ^^ learned men for the advancement of science and 
societies. ^^*' ^^^® ^^ ^^^^^ associations are of an entirely private 
character, others have been founded by the state. The first 
academy of this kind was the Museum of Alexandria, in Egypt, which was 
founded by Ptolemy Soter. The academies constituting the Institute 
of France are among the most important of the kind in the world. The 
Academie frangaise is the highest authority upon every thing relating 
to the niceties of the French language, to grammar, and the publication of 
the French classics. The Academie des inscriptions et belles leitres em- 



ACCOMPLISHMENTS — AFFECTATION" 3 

braces among the objects of its attention comparative philology. Like the 
French Institute, the academies in the capitals of Spain, Portugal, Sweden, 
Russia, and other countries, have gradually become great national centers 
for the promotion of science and art; but no such centralization has been 
effected in Italy, Germany, England, or the United States. In the United 
States of America, there are also a number of learned societies to which 
the name academy^ in the sense used on the continent of Europe, has 
been applied. 

ACCOMPLISHMENTS. This term, as contrasted with culture, 
refers to those educational acquirements which fit a person for certain 
special activities, while culture has reference to the general improvement 
of the character or mental faculties. Hence the expression "external 
accomplishments," or "ornamental accomplishments," such as skill in 
foreign languages, music, drawing, painting, dancing, etc. (See Culture.) 
^ ACQUISITION. The acquisition of knowledge must be, to a cer- 
tain extent, the scope of every process of teaching. Sometimes it is the 
primary object; but, in the earlier stages of education, it is generally se- 
condary, the educative value of the process taking precedence of the prac- 
tical importance of the knowledge communicated. The acquisition of new 
ideas must always, more or less, improve the mind by affording additional 
material for the exercise of its various faculties; but, in education, what 
particular faculties are concerned in the study of any subject or branch of 
knowledge, is a matter of paramount importance, and therefore should 
never be lost sight of by the teacher. Where this is disregarded, in- 
struction is apt to degenerate into mere rote-teaching; and the teacher 
will often rest satisfied when his pupil can repeat the formulae of knowl- 
edge, without evincing the acquisition of new ideas, on which alone the 
improvement of the mind depends. 

ACROAMATIC METHOD (Gr. aKpoaixariKog, to be heard, designed 
for hearing only), a name originally applied to the esoteric teachings of 
Aristotle and other Greek philosophers, to designate such as were confined 
to their immediate hearers, and not committed to writing. Later, the 
term has been applied to a system of instruction in which the teacher 
speaks and the pupil only listens. A method of this kind, of course, pre- 
supposes scholars of a certain maturity of age and of considerable progress 
in intellectual culture. It forms the basis of the lecture system. 

AFFECTATION, as opposed to what is real, genuine, and natural, 
is carefully to be guarded against in the education of the young. In cer- 
tain peculiarities of character, there is a proneness to the formation of 
habits of affectation in manners and speech. This tendency, however, 
ra.rely shows itself at an early age. Children generally yield to their na- 
tural impulses, and do not assume or leign what they do not feel, or, to 
use a common expression, "put on airs". Their mode of training, however, 
may tend to this, particularly if they are forced to assume an unnatural 
mode of expression in phraseology or pronunciation, in the attempt to 
make them excessively precise in such matters. Some styles of reading 
and elocution may lead to this characteristic; and hence the importance 
of adopting methods that, in all respects, correspond to the prevailing 
usage. The standard of the educator should, in every respect, comport 
with the ease, grace, simplicity, and beauty that belong to what is 



4 - AGE 

natural; and every tendency to the contrary, in his pupils, should be 
promptly and sternly repressed. Locke (in Thoughts concerning Educa- 
tion) says: "Plain and rough nature left to itself, is much better than an 
artificial ungracefulness, and such studied ways of being ill-fashioned. 
The want of an accomplishment, or some defect in our behavior, coming 
short of the utmost gracefulness, often scapes observation; but affecta- 
tion in any part of our carriage, is lighting up a candle to our defects, 
and never fails to make us to be taken notice of, either as wanting sense 
or wanting sincerity." 

AGE, in Education. The life of man has been variously divided 
into periods, or ages. Thus Pythagoras assumed four, Solon and Macro- 
. bins ten, different ages, while others have i)referred a division 

Feriods -^^^^ ^^^^ g-^^ seven, or eight. With regard to the education of 
'' ' man, one great turning-point stands forth so conspicuously, that 
teachers at all times have chosen it as a broad line of demarcation, into 
whatever number of periods they have thought it proper to divide human 
life. This turning-point in life is the period when man passes from the 
age of youth into that of viriHty. The physical development at 
Turning- ^j-^jg ^-^^^^ j^^^g become complete; in social life both sexes have 
life attained majority; and the education of the young man or wo- 
man for the career that has been selected, is, in the main, con- 
cluded. Up to this time, the education of man is conducted by others, 
chiefly parents and teachers; henceforward, he is expected to educate 
himself, and to assume the education of others. 

During the period of life when man is dependent upon others for his 

education, three different ages are broadly distinguished, — childhood, boy- 

hood or girlhood, and youth. These are marked, in the physical 

ares development of the body, by the shedding of teeth, the entrance 

of puberty, and the setting in of virility. The process of mental 

development in these three ages is as different as the physical basis ; and, 

accordingly, each of them demands a peculiar pedagogical and didactical 

treatment. 

Childhood, which embraces the first seven years of life, is characterized 
by the rapid growth and development of the organs of the body. At the 
Childhood ^?® ^^ seven a child weighs about six times as much as at its 
birth, and it has attained one half of the stature, and about one 
third or one fourth of the weight of the grown man. The mind is, during 
this period, more receptive than self- active ; the only manifestations of 
self-activity being found in the efforts to retain and arrange the impres- 
sions which have been received. All pedagogical influence upon the pupil 
in this age can be only of a preparatory character. The body must be 
guarded against injuries, and must liave opportunities for a vigorous and 
manifold development. The mind must be preserved from debasing, 
weakening, or over-exciting influences, and must be kept open for any thing 
that is conducive to the development of its faculties ; and, in order not to 
become sated and confused, it must learn to distinguish what is important 
from what is unimportant. As the child is thoroughly dependent upon 
the educator and unable to direct its own exertions, it should be made to 
understand as clearly as possible, that any opposition of its own will to 
that of its educators can be followed by only evil consequences. It should, 



AGE 5 

therefore, be taught obedience, but not obedience through fear, for fear 
has a repressive influence upon the development of the mental faculties, 
but an obedience springing from confidence in the superior wisdom and 
experience of the teacher, and from love produced by his kindness. The 
natural educators of the child are the parents, especially the mother; but, 
toward the close of this age, systematic teaching by a professional teacher 
begins. Legislation in regard to the school age differs considerably in 
different countries. In some, children are sent to the public schools when 
they are four years of age ; in others, not until they are seven. Of course, 
instruction at such an age must be limited to the most elementary rudi- 
ments, such as reading, writing, and arithmetic. The method should be 
thoroughly adapted to the mental condition of the child, and modern edu- 
cators are agreed in recognizing the importance of object teaching for the 
first stages of a child's instruction. A novel mode of instruction, specially 
intended as introductory to the regular primary school, is the kindergarten, 
founded by Froebel. The astonishing rapidity with which it has spread 
through all the countries of the civilized world, and found admission into 
educational systems otherwise radically at variance, seems to prove it to be 
a great improvement in elementary education. (See Kindeegarten.) 
Boyhood or girlhood embraces the time from the 7th to the 14th year 

of age. In the development of the body, this age is characterized 

Boyhood -^y ^YiQ appearance of the permanent teeth, by the completed 

irlhood g^^"^^'^^^ ^^ ^^^ brain, and by the first consciousness of sexual 

difference. Boys and girls long for the free and frequent exercise 
of their muscular systems. At the beginning of this age, girls like to take 
an active part in the plays of the boys ; but they soon show a preference for 
more quiet occupations and less publicity ; while, on the other hand, boys 
manifest an increased interest in noisy and wild sports. It is among the 
prime duties of the educators of this age, to keep the development of the 
natural desires and aspirations of the two sexes within the right channels. 
The minds of boys and girls afford many proofs of independent thought 
and activity. The company of adults is not sought for by them as eagerly 
as before, bub they feel entire satisfaction in the society of children of their 
own age. They think, as yet, little of the realities of life and of their future 
careers ; but their plays give more evidence, than before, of plan, serious 
thought, and perseverance, and generally indicate the faculties with which 
they have been most strongly endowed ; each child, in this way, foreboding 
to some extent its future career. It is of great importance that the edu- 
cator should not only understand the peculiar nature of this age in general, 
but that he should thoroughly know the character of each individual ; for 
the faults which are peculiar to this age are best overcome in individual 
cases, if the educator knows how to make the right kind of appeal to those 
good qualities of his pupils which are most strongly developed. In arranging 
a course of instruction for this age, it must be specially remembered that 
the minds of boys and girls are predominantly receptive. The memory 
readily receives and faithfully retains impressions ; and this, therefore, is 
the right time for learning a foreign language and geographical and histori- 
cal facts. The independence of mind peculiar to this age shows itself at 
the same time in the growth of imagination, which awakens in the boy a 
lively interest in aU that is great and extraordinary in history. On many 



6 AGRICULTURAL COLLEGES 

questions relating to the education proper for this age, educators still differ. 
Prominent among these questions, are, whether the two sexes should be 
educated separately or conjointly, to what extent the same course of instruc- 
tion should be prescribed for both, whether special studies should be begun 
at tliis age, or whether the entire course should be obligatory upon all the 
children of a school. 

The age of i/nuth extends from the beginning of puberty to the com- 
„ ,, plete development of sexuality, or from the fourteenth to 
about the twenty-iirst year of age. At this time the growth of 
the body is completed ; young men and women become aware of their 
special duties of life and of the difference in the careers upon which they 
are respectively to enter. The time of study is drawing to its close ; the 
entrance into active life is at hand. Among the lower classes of society, 
this transition occurs at the beginning of this age ; and the only increase of 
knowledge that is accessible to most persons of these classes must be de- 
rived from evening schools, public lectures, and reading ; while those of 
tlie wealthier classes, and all who wish to fit themselves for any of the 
learned professions, now enter upon the special studies of those professions, 
or finish the general studies of the preceding age. Toward the close of 
this period, if not earlier, the preparation for entering public life is com- 
pleted, or an actual entrance into life begins. 

AGRICULTURAL COLLEGES. It is only within the last four- 
teen years that any general and systematic effort has been made 
tongres- ^^ ^j-^g United States to furnish facilities for acquiring a thorough 
. . ^ scientific and practical education in agriculture. In 1862, Con- 
gress gave to the several states and territories land scrip to the 
amount of 30,000 acres for each senator and representative, on the con- 
dition that each state or territory, claiming the benefit of this act, should, 
within five years from its passage, "provide not less than one college, which 
should receive for its endowment, support, and maintenance the interest 
of all moneys derived from the sale of the aforesaid scrip or lands. " It 
was further required that " the leading object" of these colleges " should be, 
without excluding other scientific and classical studies, and including mili- 
tary tactics, to teach such branches of learning as are related to agriculture 
and the mechanic arts, in order to promote the liberal and practical educa- 
tion of the industrial classes, in the several pursuits and professions of life." 
Up to 1865, the agricultural college of Lansing, Mich., was the only one in 
the United States in which students could pursue a college course 
fowuM ^^^^"g^d ^"cl adapted to meet the wants of those who might de- 
sire, in after years, to engage in agriculture. Since that time,, 
some colleges have been organized — a large proportion of them from parts 
of universities — which are largely devoted "to teaching such branches of 
learning as are related to agriculture and the mechanic arts. " As a general 
. rule, no pains have been spared by these colleges to furnish all 
tionlind' *^^ facilities for pursuing a college course at the least possible ex- 
equipmeni. P^^^^- Manual labor is required in many of the colleges ; in 
others, it is optional. Students' labor is paid for at various rates. 
Liberal state appropriations have been made, which have been largely ex- 
pended in erecting buildings. The amount of private donations is very 
large. The late Ezra CorneU gave $700,000 to the university that bears 



ALGEBRA 7 

his name, and the total amount of private donations to this single insti- 
tution is not less than ^1,400,000, of which the colleges of agriculture and 
the mechanic arts have received their due proportion. The equipment in- 
cludes laboratories, workshops, etc., serving, directly or indirectly, to illus- 
trate and teach all the subjects relating to agriculture, as follows: mechan- 
ical laboratories or workshops, furnished with tools for working in iron and 
wood, and sometimes with engines, planers, turning-lathes, drilling-machines, 
saws, and other necessary but less expensive tools; physical laboratories, 
most of them furnished with apparatus for illustrating the subjects of 
mechanics, electricity, magnetism, heat, acoustics, and optics. Nearly all 
these colleges have well equipped chemical laboratories ; and several of 
them furnish excellent facilities for instruction in chemistry. There are 
also anatomical, geological, and botanical laboratories equipped for student 
practice in these institutions, and several have greenhouses; also draft- 
ing-rooms with the necessary tables and models for illustrating the sub- 
jects taught. A large amount of practice in drawing is, moreover, re- 
quired in several of the branches related to agriculture. Free-hand 
drawing, also, has been to some extent introduced. Several colleges 
have large collections of models of farm implements and machinery; 
engravings, photographs, charts, and drawings; together with numerous 
specimens of grains, grasses, and other plants; geological and mineralog- 
ical specimens ; collections of insects and skeletons of domestic and other 
animals ; all constituting what might be called an agricultural museum, 
though usually kept in separate rooms for the sake of convenience. For 
a fuller treatment of this subject, see Cydopoedia of Education. 

ALGESRA (Arab. a^Ja6?' , reduction of parts to a whole). For a 
general consideration of the purposes for which this study should be 
pursued, and its proper place and relative proportion of time in the curric- 
ulum, the reader is referred to the article Mathematics. It is the pur- 
pose of this article to indicate some of the principles to be kept in view, 
and the methods to be pursued in teaching algebra. 

The Literal Notation. — While this notation is not peculiar to algebra, 
but is the characteristic language of mathematics, the student usually en- 
. counters it for the first time when he enters upon this study. No 
r^ 1^ ^i satisfactory progress can be made in any of the higher branches 
^speciallv °^ mathematics, as General Geometry, Calculus, Mechanics, 
studied. Astronomy, etc., without a good knowledge of the literal nota- 
tion. By far the larger part of the difficulty which the ordinary 
student finds in his study of algebra proper — the science of the equation 
— and in his more advanced study of mathematics, grows out of an imper- 
fect knowledge of the notation. These are facts well known to all ex- 
perienced teachers. Nevertheless, it is no unfrequent thing to hear a teacher 
say of a pupil : "He is quite good in algebra, but cannot get along very 
well with literal examples !'' Nothing could be more absurd. It comes 
from mistaking the importance and fundamental character of this notation. 
It is of the first importance that, at the outset, a clear conception be gained 
of the nature of this notation, and that, in all the course, no method nor 
language be used which wiU do violence to these principles. Thus, that the 
letters a, b, x, y, etc. , as used in mathematics, represent pure number, or 
quantity, is to be amply illustrated in the first lessons, and care is to be 



8 ALGEBEA 

taken that no vicious conception insinuate itself. To say that, as 5 apples 
and 6 apples make 11 apples, so 5a and 6a make llrt, is to teach 
lUustra- error. If this comparison teaches any thing, it is that the letter 
^^ ' a in 5a, 6a, and 11a, simply gives to the numbers 5, 6, and 11 a 
concrete significance, as does the word apples in the first instance; but 
this is erroneous. The true conception of the use of a, to represent a num- 
ber, may be given in this way: As 5 times 7 and 6 times 7 make 11 times 
7, so 5 times any number and 6 times the same number make 11 times 
that number. Now, let a represent any number whatever; then 5 times 
a and 6 times a make 11 times a. The two thoughts to be impressed are, 
that the letter represents some number, and that it is immaterial what 
number it is, so long as it represents the same number in all cases in the 
same problem. Again, the genius of the literal notation requires that no 
conception be taken of a letter as a representative of number, which is not 
equally applicable to fractional and integral numbers. Thus 
Application ^^ ^^^ ^^^ g^^ ^j^^^ ^ fraction which has a numerator a and a 

"^•^ ' * ' denominator h, represents a of the b equal parts of a quantity, 
or number, as we affirm that f represents 3 of the 4 equal parts ; for this 
conception of a fraction requires that the denominator be integral; other- 
wise, if b represent a mixed number, as 4|^, we have the absurdity of 
attempting to conceive a quantity as divided into 4f equal parts. The only 
conception of a fraction, sufficiently broad to comport with the nature of 
the literal notation, is that it is an indicated operation in division; and 
all operations in fractions should be demonstrated from this definition. 

So also to read x^ ''x to the mth power", when m is not necessarily an 
integer, is to violate this fundamental characteristic of the notation. In 
like manner, to use the expressions greatest common divisor and 
«i.r>vioo^v^«o ^^'^^^ common midtwle, when literal quantities are under con- 
sideration, is an absurdity, and moreover fails to give any indi- 
cation of the idea which should be conveyed. For example, we cannot 
affirm that 2a.r2 — 2bx}/ is the greatest common divisor of 2a'a;« — 1a?bx^y 
-l-2a6-a; y^ — Vi^xy^ and ^aWx^'y ^ — laly'x^y^ — Ib'^xy^'^ since ax — 6j/ is a 
divisor of these polynomials, and whether IcuP- — Ibxy is greater or less 
than ax — by cannot be affirmed unless the relative values of the letters 
are known. To illustrate, 2aa;- — 'Ibxy =^lx [ax — by). Now suppose 
a = 500, b = lO, y = 2, and x = ^V ; then ax — by = 30, and 2ax'^ — 2bxy 
= 6. Moreover, it is not a question as to the value of the divisor that is 
involved; it is a question as to the degree. Hence, what we wish to 
affirm is that 2a.r- — 2bxy is the highest common divisor of these poly- 
nomials, with respect to x. 

In order that the pupil may get an adequate conception of the nature 
of the literal notation, it is well to keep prominently before his mind the 
fact that the fundamental operations of addition, subtraction, 
■^*f']^f. multiplication, and division, whether of integers or fractions, 
notations. *^^ various transformations and reductions of fractions, as well 
as involution and evolution, are exactly the same as the corre- 
sponding ones with which he is already familiar in arithmetic, except as 
they are modified by the difference between the literal and the Arabic no- 
tations. Thus, the pupil will be led to observe that the orders of the 
Arabic notation are analogous to the terms of a polynomial in the literal 



ALGEBRA 9 

notation, and that the process of "carrying" in the Arabic addition, etc. , 
has no analogue in the literal, simply because there is no established rela- 
tion between the terms in the latter. Again, he will see that, in both cases, 
addition is the process of combining several quantities, so that the result 
shall express the aggregate value in the fewest terms consistent with the 
notation. This being the conception of addition, he will see that for the 
same reason that we say, in the Arabic notation, that the sum of 8 and 7 
is 5 and 10 (fif-teen), instead of 8 and 7, we say, in the literal notation, 
that the sum of oax and 6ax is llax. In fact, it is quite conceivable that 
the pupil, w^io understands the common or Arabic arithmetic, can master 
the literal arithmetic for himself, after he has fairly learned the laws of the 
new notation. 

Positive and N'egative. — Although the signs + and — , even as indi- 
cating the affections positive and negative, are not confined to the literal 
notation, the pupil first comes to their regular use in thisconnec- 
■fr^?^^ tion, and finds this new element of the notation one of his most 
^ "// e" ^ vexatious stumbling-blocks. 'J'hus, that the sum of 5ai/ and — 
notation '^^^'^ should be 3^/?/, and their difference 7«j/, and that "minus 
multiplied by minus should give plus," as we are wont to say, 
often seems absurd to the learner. Yet even here he may be taught to find 
analogies in the teachings of the common arithmetic, which will at least 
partially remove the difficulty. When he comes to understand, that attrib- 
uting to numbers the affection positive or negative gives to them a sort 
of concrete significance, and allies them in some sort to denominate numbers, 
he may at least ciee, that Dat/ and 2ai/ do not necessarily make 7m/ ; for, if 
one were feet and the other yards, the sum would not be lai/ of either. If, 
then, he comes to understand that the fundamental idea of this notation 
is, that the terms positive and negative indicate simply such opposition in 
kind, in the numbers to which they are applied, as makes one tend to 
destroy or counterbalance the other, he is prepared to see that the sum of 
5ai/ and — 2ai/ is Sen/ ; since, when put together, the — 2ai/, by its oppo- 
sition of nature, destroys 2aj/ of the 5ai/. The ordinary illustrations in 
which forces acting in opposite directions, motion in opposite directions, 
Amounts of property and of debts, etc. , are characterized as positive and 
Jiegative, are helpful, if made to set in clearer light the fact, that this 
distinction is simply in regard to the way in which the )mmbei"S are applied, 
and not leally in regard to the numbers themselves. 

So, also, in multiplication, the three principles, (1) that the product is 

like the multiplicand; (2) that a multiplier must be conceived as essentially 

abstract when the operation is performed; and (3) that the sign 

fnmnUili- ^^ ^^^^ multiplier shows wdiat is to be done with the product 

"^J-r..7 when obtained, remove all the difficulty, and make it seem no 

more absurd that >*minus multiplied by minus gives plus, tnan 

that "plus multiplied by plus gives plus" : in fact, exactly the same course 

of argument is required to establish the one conclusion as to establish the 

other. When w^e analyze the operation which we call multiplying -|- ahy 

+ b, we say "-j- a taken b times gives + «&• ^ow the sign -\- before the 

multiplier indicates that the product is to be taken additively, that is, 

united to other quantities by its own sign." So when we multiply — a by 

— b, we say " — a multiplied by b (a mere number) gives — ab (a product 



10 ALGEBRA 

like the multiplicand). But the — sign before the multiplier indicates 
that this product is to be taken subtractively, i. e. united with other quan- 
tities by a sign opposite to its own." This, however, is not the place to 
develop the theory of positive and negative quantities ; our only purpose 
here is to show that the whole grows out of"^a kind of concrete or denomi- 
nate significance which is thus put upon the numbers, and which bears 
some analogy to familiar principles of common arithmetic. 

Exponents. — One other feature of' the mathematical notation comes 
into prominence now for the first time, and needs to be clearly compre- 
hended: it is the theory of exponents. Here, as well as elsewhere, 
^^^^fr ^^ ^^ important to guard against false impressions at the start. 
hted out ^^^^ ^^^^ ^^^^^ ^^ exponent indicates a power is often so fixed 
in the pupil's mind at first, that he never afterwards rids himself 
of the impression. To avoid this, it is well to have the pupil learn at the 
outset that not all exponents indicate the same thing ; thus, while some 
indicate powers, others indicate roots, others roots of powers, and others 
still the reciprocals of the latter. Too much pains can scarcely be taken to 
strip this matter of all obscurity, and allow no fog to gather around it. 
Nothing in algebra gives the young learner so much diflBculty as radicals, 
and all because he is not thoroughly taught the notation. Perhaps, but 
few, even of those who have attained considerable proficiency in mathe- 
matics, have really set clearly before their own minds the fact that f used 
as an exponent is not a fraction, in the same sense as | in its ordinary use; 
and hence that the demonstration that ^ = f , as given concerning common 
fractions, by no means proves that the exponent \ equals the exponent |. 
Other principles bearing on this important subject will be developed under 
the following head. 

Methods of Demovstraiion. — It requires no argument to convince any 
one that, in establishing the working features, if we may so speak, of a 
science, it is important that they be exhibited as direct out- 
Elementary growths of fundamental notions. 1 hus, in giving a child his first 
'^^^to^be^"^ conception of a common fraction, no intelligent teacher would 
addressed. ^^^^ ^^^^ conception of a fraction as an indicated operation in di- 
vision, and attempt to build up the theory of common fractions on 
that notion. It may be elegant and logical, and when we come to the literal 
notation it is essential ; but it is not sufficiently radical for the tyro. It is 
not natural, but scientific rather. So in the literal notation, the proposition 
that the product of the square roots of two nnmbers is equal to the square 
root of their product, may be demonstrated thus : Let ^/a X V^ = P^ 
whence ah = p^ ; and, extracting the square root of each member we have 
•^^ab = p. Hence s/a X s/b = \^ah. Now, this is concise and mathe- 
matically elegant ; but it gives the pupil no insight whatever into "the 
reason why." What is needed here is, that the pupil be enabled to see 
that this proposition grows out of the nature of a square root as one of the 
two equal factors of a number ; i. e. , he needs to see its connection with 
fundamental conceptions. Thus \/ab means that the product ab is to be 
resolved into two equal factors, and that one of them is to be taken. Now, 
if we resolve a into two equal factors, as s/a and \/a, and b into two equal 
factors, as ^'b and s/b, ab will be resolved into four factors which can be 
arranged in two equal groups, thus >/a ^'b X \/« \/^' Hence s/« \/b is 



ALGEBRA 11 

the square root of ab because it is one of the two equal factors into which 
ab caa be conceived to be resolved. In this manner, all operations in radi- 
cals may be seen to be based upon the most elementary principles of factor- 
ing. Again, as another illustration of this vicious use of the equation in 
demonstrating elementary theorems, let us consider the common theorems 
concerning the transformations of a proportion. As usually demonstrated, 
by transforming the proportion into an equation, and vice versa, the real 
reason why the proposed transformation does not vitiate the proportion, 
is not brought to light at all. For example, suppose we are to prove that, 
IffoiirqiiantUies are in proportion, they ai^e in proportion by composition, 
i. e., a a : b : : c : d, then a : a-}- b : : c : c -\- d. The common method is 
to pass from the given proportion to the equation be = ad, then add ac to 
each member, obtaining ac -|- ^c = ac -f ad, ov c {a-\-b) =a [c-{- d), and 
then to transform this equation into the proportion a '. a-\-b : : c : c-\- d. 
No doubt, this is concise and elegant, but the real reason why the trans- 
formation does not destroy the proportion, viz., that both ratios have been 
divided by the same number, is not even suggested by this demonstration. 
On the other hand, let the following demonstration be used, and the 
pupil not only sees exactly why the transformation does not destroy the 
proportion, but at every step has his attention held closely to the fun- 
damental characteristics of a proportion. Let the ratio a -.b be r; hence 
as a proportion is an equality of ratios, the ratio c : d m r; and we 
have a -r- 6 = r, and c-r- d^r, or a=: br, and c := dr. Substituting 
these values of a and c in the terms of the proportion which are 
changed by the transformation, we have a-[-b = br -\- b, or Z> (?•-{- 1), 
and c -\- d = dr -\- d, ov d [r -\- \); whence we see that a :a-\-b :: c : c-{-d 
is deduced from a : b : : c : d hj multiplying both consequents by r -\-l 
(the ratio + 1)> which does not destroy the equality of the ratios con- 
stituting the proportion, since it divides both by the same number. 
Moreover, this method of substituting for the antecedent of eaqh ratio 
the consequent multiplied by the ratio, enables us to demonstrate all 
propositions concerning the transformation of a proportion by one uni- 
form method, which method in all cases clearly reveals the reason why 
the proportion is not destroyed. 

This choice of a line of argument whicli shall be applicable to 
i.pecial Qj^ entire class of propositions is of no slight importance in con- 
of this structing a mathematical course. It enables a student to learn 
method. ^^^^ greater facility and satisfaction the demonstrations, and 
fixes them more firmly in his memory; while it also gives 
broader and more scientific views of truth, by thus classifying, and bring- 
ing into one line of thought, numerous truths which would otherwise be 
seen only as so many isolat<3d facts. 

Range of Topics to be Embraced. — We may distinguish three dif- 
ferent classes of pupils, who require as many different courses in this 
study. First, there is a very large number of our youth who, if 
diWermt ^^ *^^ ^^^•^' ^^^^^ P^^ beyond the grammar school, or, if in the 
pupils, country, never have any other school advantages than those fur- 
nished by the common or rural district school. Nevertheless, 
many of these will receive much greater profit from spending half a year, 
or a year, in obtaining a knowledge of the elements of algebra (and even 



12 ALGEBRA ' 

of geometry) than they usually do in studying arithmetic. (See Arith- 
metic. ) For this class the proper range of topics is: a clear exposition of 
the nature of the literal flotation; the fundamental rules, and fractions, 
involving only the simpler forms of expression, and excluding such abstruse 
subjects as the more diflScult theorems on factoring, the theory of lowest 
common multiple and highest common divisor; simple equations involving 
one, two, and three unknown quantities; ratio and proportion; an ele- 
mentary treatment of the subject of radicals with special attention given 
to their nature as growing out of the simplest principles of factoring; pure 
and ejected quadratics involving one or two imknown quantities. The 
second class comprises what may be called high school pupils. For this 
grade the range of topics need not be much widened, but the study of 
each should be extended and deepened. This will be the case especially 
as regards the theory of exponents^ positive and negative quantities, rad- 
icals, equations involving radicals, and simidtaneous equations, especially 
those of the second degree. To this should be added the arithmetical and 
geometrical progressions, a practical knowledge of the binomial formula, 
and logarithms, and a somewhat extended treatment of the application of 
algebra to the business rules of arithmetic. A wide acquaintance 
J^^K with the results attained in our high schools in all parts of the 
* *^^«e(7 country, and an observation extending over more than twenty 
years, satisfy the writer that time spent in these schools in 
attempts to master the theory of indeterminate co-efficients, the demonstra- 
tion of the binomial and logarithmic formulas, or upon the higher equa- 
tions, series, etc., is, if not a total loss, at least an absorption of time which 
might be much more profitably employed on other subjects, such as, for 
example, history, literature, or the elements of the natural sciences. The 
course taken by such pupils gives them no occasion to use any of these 
principles of the higher algebra; and the mastery of them which they can 
attain in any reasonable amount of time is quite too imperfect to subserve 
the ends of good mental discipline. This second course is entirely adequate 
to fit a student for admission into any American college or university. The 
third course is what we may call the college course. 

Class-Rooni Work. — It is probably unnecessary to say, that a careful 
and thorough study of text-books should be the foundation of our class- 
room work on this subject ; nevertheless, so much is said, at the 
Ulility of present time, in disparagement of "hearing recitations" instead 
- 00 -s. ^£ "teaching," that it may be well to remark that, if our schools 
succeed in inspiring their pupils with a love of books, and in teaching how 
to use them, they accomplish in this a greater good than even in the mere 
knowledge which they may impart. Books are the great store-house of 
knowledge, and he who has the habit of using them intelligently has the 
key to all human knowledge. But it is not to be denied, that there is an 
important service to be rendered by the living teacher, albeit that service, 
especially in this department, is not formal lecturing on the principles of 
the science. With younger pupils, the true teacher will often preface a 
subject with a familiar talk designed to prepare them for an in- 
Etamples telligent study of the lesson to be assigned, to awaken an interest 
lessons ^^ ^^' ^^ *^ enable them to surmount some particular difficulty. 
For example, suppose a class of young pupils are to have their 



ALGEBRA 13 

first lesson in subtraction in algebra; a preliminary talk like the following 
will be exceedingly helpful, perhaps necessary, to an intelligent preparation 
of the lesson. Observe that, in order to benefit the class, the teacher must 
confine his illustrations rigidly to the essential points on which the lesson is 
based. In this case these are (1) Adding a negative quantity destroys an 
equal positive quantity; (2) Adding a positive quantity destroys an equal 
negative quantity; (3) As the minuend is the sum of the subtrahend and 
remainder, if the subtrahend is destroyed from out the minuend, the re- 
mainder is left. Now, in what order shall these three principles be pre- 
sented ? Doubtless the scientific order is that just given ; but, in such an 
introduction to the subject as we are considering, it may be best to present 
the 3d first ; since this is a truth already famihar, and hence affords a con- 
necting link with previous knowledge. Moreover, this being already before 
the mind as a statement of what is to be done, the 1st and 2d will follow 
in a natural order as an answer to the question how the purpose is ac- 
complished. To present the 3d principle, the teacher may place on the 
blackboard some simple example in subtraction as : 

125 He will then question the class thus: What is the 125 called? 
-^t What the 74? What the 51 ? How much more than 74 is 125? 
If we add 74 and 25, what is the sum? Of what then is the minuend 
composed? What is 51 -|- 74? If we destroy the 74, what remains? If 
in any case we can destroy the subtrahend from out the minuend, what 
will remain ? Having brought this idea clearly before the mind, the teacher 
will proceed to the 1st principle. If — Sab be added to lab how much of 
the lab will it destroy? (Here again we proceed from a fundamental con- 
ception — the nature of quantities as positive and negative, thus deducing 
the new from the old.) Kepeat such illustrations of this principle as may 
have been given in addition. If several boys are urging a sled forward by 
lab pounds, and the strength of another boy amounting to Sab pounds is 
added, but exerted in an opposite direction, what now is the sum of their 
efforts? What kind of a quantity do we call the Sab 2 [Negative.] Why? 
How much of the -f- lab does — Sab destroy when we add it ? If then we 
wish to destroy -\- Sab from -\- lab, how may we do it? Proceeding then 
to the 2d principle, it may be asked, how much is Qay — lay ? If now we 
add 4- lay to &ay — 2ay, which is 4ay, what does it become ? What does 
the -[- 2aj/ destroy ? What then is the effect of adding a positive quantity? 
Such introductory elucidations should always be held closely to the plan of 

development which the pupil is to study, and should be made to 
Teacher and^i^j,Q^y jjg]^^ upon it. It is a common and very pernicious thing 
teri-jook ^^^ teachers to attempt to teach in one line of development, 
^' ^^' while the text-book in the pupil s hands gives quite another. In 
most cases of this kind, either the teacher's effort or the text-book is useless, 
or probably worse — they tend to confuse each other. Such teaching 
should culminate in the very language of the text ; and it is desirable that 
this language be read from the book by the pupil, as the conclusion of the 
teaching. Moreover, there is great danger of overdoing this kind of work. 

Whenever it is practicable, the pupil should be required to pre- 
Special pg^^g j^lg lesson from the book. A competent teacher will find 
"" ^* sufficient opportunity for "teaching" after the pupils have gath- 

ered all they can from the book. Another important service to be rendered 



14 ALGEBRA 

by the living teacher is to emphasize central truths, and hold the pupils to 
a constant review of them. So also it is his duty to keep in prominence 
the outlines of the subject, that the pupil may always know just where he 
is at work and in what relation to other parts of the subject that which he 
is studying stands. All definitions, statements of principles, and theorems 
should be thoroughly memorized by the pupil and recited again and again. 
In entering upon a new subject, as soon as these can be intelligently learn- 
ed, they should be recited in a most careful and formal manner ; and, in 
connection with subsequent demonstrations and solutions, they should be 
called up and repeated. Thus, suppose a high school class entering upon 
the subject of equations. Such a class may be supposed to be able to grasp 
the meaning of the definitions without preliminary aid from the teacher, 
save in special cases. The first lesson will probably contain a dozen or 
more definitions, with a preposition or two ; and the first work should be 
the recitation of these by the pupils individually, without any questions 
or suggestions from the teacher. Illustrations should also be required of 
the pupils ; but neither illustrations nor demonstrations should be memo- 
rized, although great care should be taken to secure a good style of expres- 
sion, modeled on that of the text. To this first recitation on a new sub- 
ject all the cla,ss should give the strictest attention ; and every point in it 
should be brought out, at least once in the hearing of every pupil. In the 
course of subsequent recitations in the same general subject, individuals 
will be questioned on the principles thus developed. For example, what 
algebra is will have been brought clearly to view in this first recitation ; 
but when a pupil has stated and solved ^ome problem, and has given his 
explanation of the solution from the blackboard, the teacher my ask. Why 
do you say you have solved this problem by algebra ? The answer will be. 
Because I have used the equation as an instrument with which to effect the 
solution. Can you solve this problem without the use of an equation ? 
AVhat do you call such a solution ? What is algebra ? Again, suppose the 
solution has involved the reduction of such an equation as the following: 
2.C — i = i (3.C — 1) -f- ^ (.-c 4- 1). In the first place the pupil will solve 
the example and give a good logical account of the solution ; but the 
teacher will make it the occasion for reviewing certain definitions and 
principles with this particular student, in such a practical connection. 
'J'hus he will ask. What is your first equation? What is your last? [.^'=2.] 
Do you look upon these as one and the same equation, or as different 
equations? In how many different forms have you written your given 
equation ? What general term do you apply to these processes of chang- 
ing the form of an equation ? What is transformation ? Similarly, every 
principle and definition will be reviewed again and again in such practical 
connections. But mere statements of processes should not be allowed to 
pass for expositions of principles. To illustrate, the pupil has placed thj 
following work upon the board : 

1x' — 28.r + 14 = 238 

Ix"- — 28.r = 224 
x' — 4x = 32 

ic' — 4.c + 4=:36 

N X — 2 = + 6 

a* = 2 4- 6 = 8, or — 4. 



ALGEBKA 15 

He is then called upon to explain his work. Something like the 
following is what we hear in the majority of our best schools: 

"Given Ix- — 2^x + 14 = 238, to find the value of x. 

"Transposing, I have laf' — 2'dx = 224. 

"Dividing by 7, x'^-~4:X = 32. 

"Completing the square, x- — 4:X + 4 = 36. 

"Extracting the square root, x — 2=:= + 6. 

"Transposing, a;=: 2 -f 6 =^ 8, and — 4." 

And the pupil turns to his instructor in the fuU consciousness of 
duty nobly done. The fact is, all that he has said is useless, nay, worse 
than useless. He has simply intimated what processes he has performed. 
That he could solve the problem was sufficiently apparent from his work. 
There was no need that he should tell us what he had done, when he had 
performed the work before our eyes. What is wanted is a clear and 
orderly exposition of the reason why he takes every step. This involves 
two points, since he is to show (1) that the step taken tends to the desired 
end, that is, the freeing of the unknown quantity from its connections 
with known quantities so as finally to make it stand alone as one member 
of the equation; and (2) that the step does not destroy the equation.*) 
Something like the following should be the style of explanation: " Given 
7a;^ — 28.C -\- 14 = 238, to find the value of x. In order to do this, I wish so 
to transform the equation that, in the end, x shall stand alone, constitut- 
ing one member of the equation, while a known quantity constitutes the 
other member. Hence 1 transpose the known quantity 14 to the second 
member. This I do by subtracting 14 from each member, which may be 
done without destroying the equation (or the equality of the members) 
since, if the same quantity be subtracted from equals, the remainders are 
equal. I thus obtain Ix — 28.r = 224. I now observe that the first 
term of the first member contains the square of x, while the second 
contains the first power. I wish to obtain an equation which shall 
contain only the first power of x. In order to do this, I make the first 
term a perfect power by dividing each member of the equation by 7, 
which does not destroy the equality, since equals divided by equals give 
equal quotients, and I have oo"- — 4.^• = 32. Now, observing that 
ai'' — 4.C constitutes the first two terms of the square of a binomial of which 
the square of half the co-efficient of x, or 4, is the third term, I add 4 to 
this member to make it a complete square, and also add 4 to the second 
member to preserve the equality of the members, and have x"- — 4a; +4=3 6. 
Extracting the square root of x' — 4,^•+4, 1 have x — 2, an expression which 
contains only the first power of .r; but to preserve the equality, I also 
extract the square root of the second member, obtaining x — 2:= -j- 6. Fi- 
nally, transposing — 2 to the second member by adding 2 to each member, 
which does not destroy the equation, I have .r=8, or — 4." If it is de- 
sired to abbreviate the explanation, it is far better to make it simply an 
outline of the reasons, than a mere statement of the process. In this case, 
an outline of the reasons may be given thus: The object is to disengage x 



*) "Destroy the value of the equation," is an absurd expression which we frequently 
hear. An equation is not a quantity, and hence has no value. The equality of the 
members is meant. 



16 ALGEBRA — ALPHABET 

from its connections with the other quantities so that it shall stand 
alone, constituting one member while the other member is a known 
quantity. The first process is based upon the principle that equals 
subtracted from equals leave equal remainders, the second, upon the 
principle that equals divided by equals give equal quotients," etc. Again, 
while it is admissible, when the purpose is to fix attention upon any 
particular transformation, to omit the reasons for some of those pre- 
viously studied, it is far better thit these be omitted pro forma than that 
something which is not an exposition of reasons be given. Thus, if the 
present purpose is to secure drill in the theory of completing the square, 
after having enunciated the problem, the pupil may say: " Having re- 
duced the equation to the form x^ — 4^ = 32," etc., proceeding then to 
give in full the explanation of the process under consideration. But it is 
well to allow no recitation on such a subject to pass without having at 
least one full explanation. These remarks apply to study and recitations 
designed to give intelligent facility in reducing equations. In what may 
be called "Applications of equations to the solution of practical problems, ' 
the purpose is quite different, and so should be the pupil's explanation. 
In these, the statement is the important thing, and should be made the 
main thing in the explanation. In most such cases, it will be quite 
sufficient, if, after having given the reasons for each step in the statement, 
thus fully explaining the principles on which he has made the equation, 
the pupil conclude by saying simply: " Solving this equation, I have," 
etc. Outlines of demonstrations and synopses of topics are exceedingly 
valuable as class exercises. For example, it requires a far better knowl- 
edge of the demonstration of Sturm's theorem to be able to give the fol- 
lowing outline than to give the whole in detail: (L) No change in the 
variable which does not cause some one of the functions to vanish, can 
cause any change in the number of variations and permanences of the 
signs of the functions; (2) No two consecutive functions can vanish 
for the same value of the variable; (3) The vanishing of an inter- 
mediate function cannot cause a change in the number of variations and 
permanences ; and (4) I'he last function cannot vanish for any value of 
the variable ; and, as the first vanishes every time the value of the 
variable passes through a root of the equation, it by so doing causes a loss 
of one, and only one, variation. We, therefore, have the theorem [giving 
the theorem]. Finally, no subject should be considered as mastered by the 
pupil until he can place upon the blackboard a synoptical 
■Blackboard rj^^iajygis of it, and discuss each point, either in detail or in out- 
^ " line, without any questioning or prompting by the teacher. 
The order of arrangement of topics, i. e. , the sequence of definitions, 
principles, theorems, etc., is as much a part of the subject considered 
scientifically as are the detailed facts ; and the former should be as firmly 
fixed in the mind as the latter. 

ALMA MATEB (Lat., fostering mother) is a name affectionately 
given by students of colleges and universities to the institution to which 
they owe their education. 

ALPHABET. The alphabet of any language is the series of letters, 
arranged in the customary order, which form the elements of the 
language when written. It derives its name from the first two letters of 



ALPHABET 



17 



the Greek alphabet, which are named alpha, beta. The letters in the English 
alphabet have the same forms as those of the Latin language, which were 
borrowed from the Greek. The Latin alphabet, however, did not 
c^i^ared ^^^^^^^ ^^^ *^^ ^^^^^ letters. The letters of the Greek alphabet 
■ were borrowed from the Phoenician, which was that used by- 
many of the old Semitic nations, and is of unknown origin. It consisted of 
22 signs, representing consonantal sounds. Into this alphabet the Greeks 
introduced many modifications, and the changes made by the Romans were 
also considerable. Its use in English presents many variations from its 
final condition in the I^tin language. Thus, I and J, and U and Y, in- 
stead of being merely graphic variations, were changed so as to represent 
different sounds, during the 16th and 17th centuries. W was added 
previously, in the middle ages. The twenty-six letters of our alphabet have 
been thus classified with regard to their history : (1) B, D, H, K, L, M, N, 
P, Q, R, S, T, letters from the Phoenicians ; (2) A, E, I, 0, Z, originally 
Phoenician, but changed by the Greeks ; (3) LF (same as Y) , X, invented 
by the Greeks ; (4) C, F, Phoenician letters with changed value ; (5) G, of 
Latin invention ; (6) Y, introduced into Latin from the Greek, with changed 
form ; (7) J, Y, graphic Latin forms raised to independent letters ; (8) W, 
a recent addition, formed by doubling U (or Y), whence its name. 

The imperfections of the English alphabet are manifold : (1) Different 

consonants are used to represent the same sound; as c (soft) and s, g (soft) 

and j, c (hard) and k, q and k, x and ks. (2) Different sounds 

^??5fWs7i are expressed by the same letter; as c in cat and cell, g in get 

•imperfect ^^^ ^"^' ^ ^" *^^ ^"^ ^^' ^ ^^ *^ ^"^ ^/' ®*^- (^) '^'^^ vowels are 
constantly interchanged, as is illustrated in the following table 

of the vowel elements of the language and their literal representations, 

the diacritical marks used being those of Webster's Dictionary. 



Long. 




Short. 


a e as in ape, they 


6 


as in end 


S. e " " care, ere 


S 


" " hat 


a " " art 


k 


" " ask 


a 6 " " all, orb 


a a 


" " what, not 


e i " " eve, pique 


i 


" " sit 


e 1 y " " her, sir, myrrh 






6 " " old 






f) u 55 " " do, rule, too 


<? 1? 


00 " " wolf, put, book 


u " " urn 


6 u 


" " love, luck 


u " " use 






i y " " ice, my 






oi oy " " oil, boy 






ou ow " " out, owl 







From this table it will be seen that the letter a is used to represent 
seven different sounds; e,jive sounds; o, six sounds, etc. (See Phonetics.) 
The names given to the letters are not in conformity with a uniform prin- 
ciple of designation. Thus, the names of b, c, d, g,p, t, v, and z are be, ce, 
de, ge, etc.; while the names of /, /, m, n, s, and x are ef, el, em, en., etc.; 
and the names of j, k, areja, ka. The heterogeneity of these names and 
of their construction will be obvious. It is important that the teacher 
should take cognizance of these incongruities in giving elementary instruc- 
tion, as they dictate special methods of presentation. (See Alphabet 
Method.) 



18 ALPHABET METHOD 

ALPHABET METHOD, or A-B-C Method. This has reference 
to the first steps in teaching children to read. According to this method, 
the pupil must learn the names of all the letters of the alphabet, 
Method gj^jjgj. fpQm an A-B-C book, from cards, or from the blackboard] 
that is, he must be taught to recognize the various forms of 
the letters, and to associate with them their respective names. The method 
of doing this, once very general, was to supply the pupils with books, and 
then, calling up each one singly, to point to the letters, one after the other, 
and to pronounce the name of each, so as to associate arbitrarily the form 
with the name; or, in simultaneous class instruction, to exhibit the lettera 
on separate cards, and teach their names by simple repetition. This pro- 
cess must, of course, be not only long and tedious, but exceedingly dry and 
uninteresting to a child, since it affords no incentive to mental activity, — 
no food for intelligence. By a careful selection and discrimination, how- 
ever, in presenting the letters to the attention of the child, its intelligence 
may be addressed in teaching the alphabet by this method. The simple 
forms, such as I, 0, X, S, will be reuiembered much more readily than the 
others; and these being learned, the remainder may be taught by showing 
the analogy or similarity of their forms with the others. Thus O becomes 
C when a portion of it is erased; one half of it with I, used as a bar, forms 
D; two smaller D s form B; and so on. This method is very simple, and 
may be made quite interesting by means of the blackboard. 

The letters which closely resemble each other in form, such as A and 
V, M and N, E and F, and C and G, among capitals, and b and d, c and 

^ e, p and q, and ii and u, among small letters, should be presented 

^^^' together, so that their minute differences may be discerned, 
of leUers ^^^^^^^ *^^ blackboard is used (as it should always be in teaching 
classes), the letters may be constructed before the pupils, so that 
they may perceive the elements of which they are composed. Thus the 
children will at once notice that b, d, p, q, are composed of the same ele- 
ments, differently combined, — a straight stroke, or stem, and a small 
curve. By an appropriate drill, the peculiar forms, with the name of each, 
will then be soon impressed upon the pupils' minds; and, besides that, thyir 
sense of analogy, one of the most active principles of a child's mind, will be 
addressed, and this will render the instruction lively and interesting. In 
carrying out this plan, the teacher may use the blackboard, and 
^ ^^ ■ as a review, or for practice, require the children to copy, 

and afterwards draw, from memory, on the slate, the letters taught. 
Cards may also be used, a separate one being employed for each letter. 
With a suitable frame in which to set them, these may be used with good 
advantage, the teacher making, and the children also being required to 
make, various combinations of the letters so as to form short and familiar 
words. A horizontal wooden bar with a handle, and a groove on the upper 
edge in which to insert the cards, forms a very useful piece of apparatus 
for this purpose. Letter-Blocks may also be used in a similar manner by 
both teacher and pupils. These blocks are sometimes cut into sections so 
as to divide the letter into several parts, and the pupil is required to adjust 
the parts so as to form the letter. This method affords both instruction 
and amusement to young children, and at the same time, gives play to 
their natural impulse to activity. These various methods will be combined 



ALUMNEUM — ANALYSIS 19 

and others devised by every ingenious teacher. In some schools a piece of 
apparatus, called the reading frame, is used. This is constructed like a 
blackboard with horizontal grooves, in which the letters can be placed so as 
to slide along to any required position. By the use of assorted letters, the 
teacher can construct any word or sentence, building it up letter by letter, 
as types are set. Many interesting exercises in reading and spelling may 
be given by means of such an apparatus, the children being required to 
construct words and sentences themselves, as well as to read those formed 
by the teacher. The A-B-(J method of teaching the elements of reading 
has now, quite generally, been superseded by the word method. Bain, in 
Education as a Science (1881), remarks in relation to this method: "Much 
stress is now laid by teachers on the point of beginning to pronounce short 
words at sight, without spelling them; and a strong condemnation is uttered 
against the old spelling method. The difference between the methods is not 
very apparent to me; after a few preliminary steps, the two must come to 
the same thing." (See Orthography, and Phonf:tics.) 

ALUMNEUM, or Alumnat (Lat., from alere, to feed, to nourish), 
the name given in Germany to an institution of learning which affords to 
its pupils board, lodging, and instruction. The first institutions of this 
kind arose in the middle ages in connection with the convents. Among 
the most celebrated are those founded by Maurice of Saxony, in the 16th 
century, at Pforta, Meissen, and Grimma. When the pupils were received 
and instructed gratuitously, they were expected to perform various services 
for the school and church, such as singing in the choir. The pupils of these 
schools were called alumni. (See Alumnus.) 

ALUMNUS, pi. Alumni (Lat., from alere, to feed, to nourish) origin- 
ally the name of a student who was supported and educated at the expense 
of a learned institution (see Alumneum) , now generally applied to a gradu- 
ate of a college or similar institution. The graduates of higher seminaries 
or colleges for females are sometimes called alumnce. 

ANALYSIS, Grammatical, or Sentential. — By the analysis of 
a sentence is meant a decomposition of it into its logical elements. Every 
sentence must either be a single proposition, or be composed of 
Erplanation propositions more or less intimately related; and every proposi- 
7 t^, tion must contain a subject and a. predicate, the former express- 
'^' ing that of which we speak, and the latter, what we say of it. 
'i'he entire or logical subject must contain a noun or pronoun, either alone 
or with related words called modifiers or adjuncts, or it may be a phrase 
or a clause. T'he entire or logical predicate, in the same manner, must con- 
sist of a verb with or without adjuncts. These constitute all the parts, 
and all the relations, involved in the construction of a sentence. A few 
words, such as interjections, may be used independently of them. Grammar 
has been defined as the "art of speaking and writing correctly," or as the 
"practical science which teaches the right use of language"; and for general 
purposes this account is, perhaps, sutficiently explicit. It does not, how- 
ever, truly distinguish grammar from the other arts concerned in teaching 
the "right use of language," and hence does not correctly point out its pe- 
culiar province. From a want of precision in defining the limitations of 
any art or science, there must necessarily follow a corresponding inaccuracy 
and looseness in its treatment; since, before we can reason properly as to 



20 ANALYSIS 

the best methods of attaining any object, we must clearly conceive what 
that object is, and carefully distinguish it from all others. 

The special province of grammar does not extend beyond the construc- 
tion of sentences; but it is quite obvious that to use language correctly, 
. those principles and rules must be understood which underlie 

Province of ^^^ proper method of combining sentences so that they may 
grammar. ^^Qj^g^j^^^^g elegant and logical discourse. A person may be suffi- 
ciently familiar with grammatical rules to construct sentences with perfect 
correctness, but may so arrange them as to express only nonsense; and 
such a person could scarcely be considered as understanding the "right use 
of language." The sentence being the peculiar province of grammar, it 
follows that the only subjects of investigation embraced within it are 
words, their orthography, inflectional forms, and pronunciation, and their 
arrangement in sentences. All grammatical definitions and rules are 
founded upon the relations of the parts of a sentence to each other; and, 
therefore, these relations should be first taught. It is with reference to 
these relations, that words are classified into parts of speech, or, as they 
might properly be called, parts of the sentence. To define or explain these 
parts of speech before giving any definition of a sentence, is, therefore, 
clearly illogical; yet this has been the method of many grammarians, words 
being exjjlained and j^ni'sed as if they had only individual properties. It is 
in this that the distinction between parsing and granmiatical analysis con- 
sists. Both are, in fact, only different kinds of analysis, and are based on 
precisely the same relations, — those in which the words stand to each 
other as parts of a sentence. 

Parsing, as uniformly employed by grammarians, is a 
Parsing niinute examination of the individual words of a sentence, 
analvsis "^'^^^^ ^^^^ view to determine whether the rules of grammar, proper 
to the particular language in which the sentence is written, have 
been observed or violated. Ai alysis, on the other hand, deals with the 
relations upon which those rules are based, and which are common to all 
languages. Thus, in parsing, the pupil is obliged to scrutinize all the in- 
flectional forms in which the words composing the sentence are used; and, 
in order to determine whether they are proper or not, must not only know 
the rules of syntax, but the relations of the words to each other, so as to 
be able to apply those rules. The relations are invariable in all languages, 
but the rules which refer to the inflections are founded on particular usage, 
and hence are in no two languages exactly alike. On this account, since 
the general logically precedes the special, the treatment of sentential anal- 
ysis should precede any exercises in parsing. Otherwise, how, for example, 
could a pupil be required to distinguish the cases of nouns and pronouns, 
and the person and number of verbs, before being taught the relations of 
the words to each other ? 

By means of the analytical method, when rightly applied. 
Advantages ^j^^ study of grammar is made clear, logical, and easy from 
anahiUcal *^^ ^^^^ beginning. The pupil is first taught the nature of 
method. *^^^ sentence, its essential parts, and their relations to each 
other, and is shown how to analyze sentences of a sinjple 
character. He is troubled with but little phraseology; for all the terms 
that are essential to the complete distinction and designation of the parts 



ANALYSIS 21 

of a sentence are stchjed, verb or predicate, object, attribute, and adjuncts. 
These being defined, and the pupil taught how to distinguish them, a com- 
plete foundation has been laid for the intelligent study of all other gram- 
matical terms and distinctions; and this being the foundation, should, of 
course, be the first thing done. Those who oppose the analytical 
The real Yi\^\\^odi assert that words are the real elements of a sentence, 
elements ^^^^ ^^^^^ ^^^^ consideration of these involves, therefore, an ex- 
sentence li^ustive analysis of the sentence itself. With the same pro- 
priety might it be said that pieces of iron of various shapes are 
the elements of the steam-engine. They indeed compose the machine, and 
it can ultimately be resolved into them; but could its structure and work- 
ings be explained by taking these fragments of metal in a hap-hazard way, 
and noticing how they are related to others in immediate juxtaposition, 
without regard to the general structure of the machine, and the dependence 
of its operation upon a few elementary or primary parts, as the cylinder, 
piston, condenser, etc. ? Words are not necessarily the real elements of a 
sentence. These are the subject and predicate and their adjuncts; and, 
unless these component parts of the general structure be first observed, the 
relations of the separate words cannot be understood. Hence, we find that 
those writers who have ignored a definite consideration of these logical 
elements, have fallen into many errors and inconsistencies. 

The various systems of analysis in use differ in no essen- 
Different ^-^j respect, the chief variation being in the nomenclature 
syfi emt,. g^^pj^yg^j ^q designate the elements of the sentence. The 
name generally applied to a proposition forming a part of a sentence is a 
clause, and any group of related words not making a proposition is called 
a phrase. The modifying elements are by some called adjective or ad- 
verbial, according as they perform the functions of adjectives or adverbs. 
Instead of the term adjective, adnominal is sometimes employed. 1 he 
term adjunct is generally employed to designate an element subordinate to 
either subject or predicate. Such adjuncts may be modifying, descriptive, 
or apposiiional. A modifying adjunct changes the meaning of the element 
to which it is applied, generally, by making it more specific, or by restrict- 
ing the class to which it belongs. Thus animal is a more general term 
than four-footed animal; hence, fourfooted is a modifying adjunct. But 
the term man is no more general than man that is horn of a woman, or 
mortcd man; the adjuncts, tlicd is hmm of a woman and mortal being only 
descriptive, not modifying. Appositional adjuncts only explain; as: He, 
the chieftain of them cdl, in which the phrase, the chieftcdn, etc., is only ex- 
planatory, or appositional. Adjuncts may be single words, phrases, or 
clauses; and one of the chief advantages of sentential analysis is to show the 
pupil that groups of words are often used so as to perform the same office 
as single words. In teaching this subject, a proper gradation of topics 
should be observed; and much caution exercised to avoid the perplexing of 
the young pupil by presenting to his mind distinctions too nice to be dis- 
cerned by his undeveloped powers of analysis. Various methods have been 
devised in order to present to the eye of tlie student the analyzed sentence, 
so as to show clearly the relation of its parts; and, in the rudimental stages 
of the instruction, these are, without doubt, of considerable utility; but 
they should not be carried so far as to present to the student a confused 



22 ANALYTIC METHOD OF TEACHING 

mass of loops, lines, curves, or disjointed phrases, far more difficult to 
disentangle than to analyze, without any such aid, the most involved sen- 
tence. All such devices, it must be remembered, are only auxiliaries to the 

mind's natural operations, and cannot at all supersede them. 

f^f^ Neither should the exercise of analyzing sentences be allowed to 

a al ^'- degenerate into the mechanical application of its most simple 

requirements. As the student advances, he will be able to omit 
more and more of the routine, until he reaches a stage of progress, at which 
the general structure of the sentence — its component clauses and their re- 
lations, will be all that he need observe or state. AVhen judiciously and 
rationally employed, sentential analysis must engender a very important 
quality of mind, and greatly conduce to clear thinking, intelligent, critical 
reading, and accurate, terse expression. 

ANALYTIC METHOD OF TEACHING. This is the method 
used by the teacher when he presents to his pupils composite truths or 
J. ,., , facts, and by means of analysis shows the principles involved, or 

leads the mind of the pupil to an analysis of them for himself. 
In this way he teaches principles which the pupil is to apply to the eluci- 
dation of many diverse problems. In the synthetic method, the teacher 
begins with principles, explains their meaning, and shows how they are to 
be applied. Thus, suppose the pupil is to be taught how to add and sub- 
,„ . , tract fractions. According to the analytic method, the fractions 
■ to be operated upon are presented to the pupil's mind, and he 
is shown, first the difficulty involved, and secondly, how to surmount this 
difficulty, by (1) finding a common denominator, and (2) by changing the 
tiumerator so that the fractions with the common denominator may have 
the same value as the given fractions. Then the method of addition or 
subtraction becomes obvious. In this way learning the principle himself 
by analysis, the pupil is enabled to construct a general rule, and apply it to 
any given case. In the synthetic method, the pupil would be taught in 
the first place the nature and use of a common denominator, then the me- 
thod of reducing fractions to a common denominator, and then to add or 
subtract fractions by finding a common denominator. If the object of the 
. , , instruction given were, exclusively, to make the pupil expert in 
^ ' * adding and subtracting fractions, the synthetic method would 
perhaps have some advantage over the analytic; but, since an important 
part of this object is to train the mind, the analytic method is greatly to be 
preferred; for (1) it stimulates the mind to greater activity. (2) it teaches 
it how to investigate for itself, and to discover truth, and (3) it gives it a 
much clearer knowledge of the fundamental principles involved in the sub- 
T- • / j^^* taught. Whether the analytic method should be employed 
Limits of ^^^ |.Q what extent, is to be determined by a consideration of 

the nature of the subject taught, and the degree of advancement 
of the student. In the higher stages of education, much time would be 
lost by rigorously following this method; and if, in the more elementary 
stages, the pupils mind has been thoroughly trained in this way, it will not 
be necessary to adhere to it when he comes to study the higher branches. 
At every stage, however, there will be occasion for the use of both analysis 
and synthesis; and the judgment of the teacher must be exercised, at every 
step, to determine which is the appropriate method to be employed. 



ANGLO-SAXON — APPARATUS 2.^ 

ANGLO-SAXON. There are no persons to whom this study is 
more important than to teachers of Enghsh grammar. The explanations 
of the forms of words are all to be sought in it. The origin and meaning 
of the possessive ending 's, of the plural endings, of the endings for gender, 
of the tense forms and other forms of the verb, the adverbial endings, the 
prepositions, may at any time be demanded of the teacher. Pupils will 
ask him whether John's book is a contraction of John his book', how comes 
geese to be the plural of goose, and men the plural of mmi; how comes 
Iwly to be the feminine of lord\ how comes / have loved to express the 
perfect tense; what does the to mean when you say to be, or not to be, that 
is the question, and so on without end. But such questions cannot be 
answered without knowing Anglo-Saxon. It is the same with questions of 
syntax. Almost all difficulties grow out of Anglo-Saxon idioms, or find 
their solution in the forms of that speech. Teachers who know nothing of 
the history of the language puzzle themselves infinitely with subtle reason- 
ings to prove that expressions must be parsed in one way or another, when 
a glance at an Anglo-Saxon grammar would settle the matter in a moment. 
No teacher can safely pronounce on any such mooted questions of our 
language without knowing the Anglo-Saxon forms. No normal school 
ought to send out graduates from its grammar department wholly ignorant 
of this study. A lesson a day during the last school terra skillfully directed 
to the most frequent examples in which this knowledge comes into use, 
would perhaps answer the most pressing necessities of the common school 
teacher. Twice that time would be a meager allowance to lay the founda- 
tion of the education of an accomplished high-school teacher in this depart- 
ment. For this study may be used March's Comparative Grammar of 
the Anglo-Saxon Language (New York); — this contains a full syntax; 
R. Morris's Historical Outlines of English Accidence (London); Hadley's 
Brief History of the English Language, in Webster's Dictionary (1865). 
For a full consideration of this subject, see Cydopcedia of Education, and 
Year-Book of Education for 1878. 

APPARATUS, School. — The work of instruction in school is very 
greatly facilitated by sufficient and appropriate apparatus, such as black- 
boards, slates, globes, maps, charts, etc. This is especially required in the 
„ .... teaching of children in classes, as in common schools. By this 

^' means, the sense of sight being addressed, the impressions made 
are clearer and more durable. Besides, the concrete is made to take the 
place of the abstract, by the use of suitable apparatus ; and, in the first 
stages of education, the former is almost exclusively to be employed since 
abstract principles or truths are not comprehended by the young mind, ex- 
cept upon a sufficiently extensive basis of concrete facts. Thus by means 
of the numeral frame, the various rudimental combinations of numbers are 
presented to the mind of the young pupil, in connection with actual objects; 
and in this manner a clear idea is given of those processes which, merely by 
J . . abstract statements of the truths, or by mere verbal repetition, 

however long continued, would scarcely be apprehended at all. 
Of course, the teacher should be careful not to carry the use of such ap- 
paratus beyond its proper limits; since the pupil's mind is gradually to 
be accustomed to conceive clearly the truth of abstract propositions with- 
out regard to their concrete applications. 



24 ^^^^ ARCHEOLOGY 

Every stage or grade of school instruction must have its appropriate 
apparatus, infant instruction requires a great number and variety of 
simple apparatus (gifts) in order, by natural methods, to aid the develop- 
ment of the child's mind. (See Kindergarten.) The primary school 

should be supplied with a numeral frame, blackboards, slates, 
ff.^f^^^ and pencils for the use of the children, a box of forms, spelling 

and reading charts, color charts, pictures of animals, etc.; and, 
when elementary geography is taught, simple maps and a small globe. For 
this purpose, one that may be divided into hemispheres (Hand- Hemisphere 
Globe) is best; since by means of it the relation of the planisphere maps 
to the globe may be clearly shown. (See Globes.) A simple relief globe 
is also of great service at this stage. Other ingenious and attractive ap- 
paratus has been devised to aid the work of the primary school teacher, to 
which a special reference is not needed. In the more advanced stages of 
instruction, the use of any other than the ordinaiy apparatus, such as the 
blackboard, maps, globes, etc., becomes less and less necessary, except in 
the teaching of certain special subjects; as higher arithmetic, mensuration, 
astronomy, and other departments of natural science. For such purposes, 
the cube-root blocks and other geometrical solids, a tellurian, an orrery, etc., 
will be of great value. Charts of physiology, history, etc., are scarcely to 

be dispensed with. In the teaching of natural science, very 

. '^ ^, expensive and complicated apparatus is not at first required. 

amaralus ^''^^^^^^ ^^^^ simpler it is, the better; since the use of such appli- 

needed ^'^ces will incite the pupil himself to experiment with those 

simple contrivances which his own powers of invention wiU 
enable him to devise. 'J'hus the use of the lever may be just as well ex- 
plained by means of a pen-holder or a pointer as by a polisned steel rod 
specially constructed for the purpose. Nothing marks more fully the 
ability of the teacher than adroitness in availing himself of all common 
resources for the purpose of illustration. Some of the most important 
discoveries in physical science have been made with very rude apparatus. 
In the use of apparatus to illustrate scientific facts, as of the globe, 
tellurian, or orrery for the purpose of teaching astronomy, it should al- 
ways be borne in mind that such contrivances cannot supersede the study 
of nature itself. Cumbrous and complicated machinery, without an atten- 
tive observation of the natural phenomena which they are intended to ex- 
plain, rather serve to give false notions than to impart correct ideas of the 
actual facts. The latter must be clearly grasped by the mind as facts be- 
fore their illustration is attempted by means of artificial contrivances. This 
depends upon an important principle which the teacher should be careful 
to recognize and apply. (See Blackboard, and Numeral Frame.) 

ARCHEOLOGY (from apxalog, ancient, and 'Adyog, knowledge, 
science) denotes properly the science of antiquities. In the widest sense of 
the word, it would embrace the history, mythology, political institutions, 
religion, commerce, industry, literature, and fine arts of ancient times, but 
it is now used in a more restricted sense, as treating of the remains of the 
primitive inhabitants of a country. Thus, while it is an important hand- 
maid of history, it is widely distinguished from it. To the teaching of 
history, even in the most rudimental form, this subject is not to be dis- 
pensed with. 



AHITHMETIC 25 

ARITHMETIC (Gr. api-^jiriTLKr] from aptd-fjSc, number), the sci- 
ence of numbers. This subject occupies a prominent place in the curric- 
ulum of all elementary schools, both primary and grammar, as well from 
its educational or disciplinary, as from its practical value. In the practical 
consideration of this subject, the first topic that presents itself is: 

]V//at should cmstiiute the course in arithmt4ic. — In the first 
place, there should be a thorough unification of the processes of mental 

and written arithmetic. There is but one science of arith- 
^ '^^" metic; and everything that tends to produce the impression 

in the pupil s mind that there are two species, the one in- 
tellectual and the other mechanical, is an obstacle to his true progress. 
What is valuable in the methods now peculiar to mental arithmetic, 
needs to be thoroughly incorporated with what is practically convenient 
or necessary in written arithmetic; so that the whole may be made 
perfectly homogeneous. The basis upon which this is to be effected is, 
that principles should be discussed first by the use of small numbers which 
can be easily held in the mind, and which do not render the difficulty or 
labor of combination so great as to absorb the attention, or divert it from 
the line of thought; and that we should pass gradually, in applying the 
reasoning, to larger numbers and more difficult and complex combinations, 
in which pencil and paper are necessary. 'J'he rationale should be always 
the same in the mental (properly, oral) arithmetic and in the written, pen- 
cil and paper being used only when the numbers become too large, or the 
elements too numerous, to render it practicable to hold the whole in the 
mind. For example, suppose the pupil to be entering upon the subject of 
percentage. The first step is to teach what is meant by per cent. In order 

to do this, small numbers will be used, and the process will not 
IllLstra- require pencil and paper, nor will such numbers be selected at 

first, as will cause difficulty in effecting the combinations. Thus, 
the first questions may be, "Mr. A had 300 sheep and lost 5 out of each 
hundred; how many did he lose?" "What phrase may we use instead of 
'5 out of each hundred?' " *'Mr. B had an orchard of 400 peach-trees and 
lost 6 per cent of them; how many did he lose?" "What phrase may we 
use instead of '6 per cent?' " 'J'o assign as the first example one like the 
following would be a gross violation of this principle: "Mr. A put out 
$759 on 7 percent interest; what was the interest for a year?" After 
the principle to be taught is clearly seen, larger numbers should be intro- 
duced, and such as require that the work be written. But the same style 
of explanation should be preserved; and great care should be taken to have 
it seen that the method of reasoning is the same in all cases. To illustrate 
still farther: as, in practice, the computer ordinarily uses th3 rate as the 
multiplier, the form of explanation, when the whole is given orally, should 
be adapted to this fact. At first, such an example as the first above will 
naturally be solved thus: ''If Mr. A lost 5 sheep out of 100, out of 3 
hundred he lost 3 times 5, or 1.5 sheep." But before leaving such simple 
illustrations, the reasoning should take this form: " Since losing 1 out of 
100 is losing .01 of the number, losing .5 out of 100 is losing .0.5 of the 
number. Hence. Mr. A lost .0.5 of 300 sheep, which is In sheep." Thus, 
in all cases, the form of thought which will ordinarily be required in solv- 
ing the problem, should be that taught in the introductory analysis. A 



26 AEITHMETIC 

farther illustration of this is furnished by reduction. At first, the question, 
'How many ounces in 5 lb. V" will naturally be answered, "Since there 
are Ki oz. in 1 lb., in 5 lb. there are 5 times It) oz., or 80 oz." But in 
practice the 16 is ordinarily used as the niuhiplier, and it is better that the 
introductory (mental) analysis should conform to this fact. Hence, the 
pupil should be led to see, at the outset, that, as every pound is composed 
of 10 ounces, in any given weight there are IG times as many ounces, as 
pounds; and he should be required to analyze accordingly. 

Apart from this use of what are called mental processes, 
TTse of there is no proper well-defined sphere for their employment. In 
•^ocesses P^'^^tical applications, it is quite unphilosophical to classify the 
* examples, by calling some mental and others iL-riiitn. "We do 
not find them so labeled in actual business life. The pupil needs to dis- 
criminate for himself as to whether any particular example should be 
solved without the pencil or with it. It should also be borne in mind that 
business men rely very little upon these mental operations. 'J'hey use the 
pen and paper for almost every computation. In the second place, in con- 
structing our course in arithmetic, we need to give the most careful atten- 
tion to the condition and wants of the youth found in our public schools. 
Perhaps it is no exaggeration to say, that from eighty to ninety per cent 
of the pupils disappear from these schools by the close of the seventh school 
year; and not more than one in one hundred takes a high school course. 
Since all pupils of the common schools have need of the rudiments of 
number, as counting, reading and writing small numbers, the simple com- 
, ^ binations embraced in the addition, subtraction, midtiplicaiion, 
Primary ^^^^ division tables, the simpler forms oi fractions, and the more 

common denominations of compound numhe^^s, an elementary 
text-book is deemed to be needful for many schools. The objections often 
urged to ha\ing these primary lessons entirely oral are, that it makes an 
unnecessary draft upon the time and energy of the teacher, renders the 
pupils' progress very slow, does not so readily supply the means of giving 
them work while not actually under instruction, and more than all, begets 
in their minds a dislike for study and self-exertion, and a disposition to 
expect that the teacher must do all the work, and thus carry them along. 
But whatever disposition may be made of primary arid,metic^ as usually 

understood, there is an imperative demand that the course in 
roc ica arithmetic for the masses should be so arranged that the more 

important practical subjects can be reached and mastered by a 
majority of our youth during the comparatively short time which they can 
spend in our schools. In order to effect this, three things will be found 
necessaiy: (1) a rigorous exclusion of all topics relatively unimportant, 
(2) a judicious limitation of the topics presented, and (3) care that, in the 
laudable desire to secure facility in fundamental processes, — adding, 
multiplying, etc., the teacher does not consume so much time that the great 
mass of the pupils will never advance beyond the merest rudiments of the 
-^ subject. The range of topics to be included in the common school 

lovics course, will be the fundamental rules; com.mon and decimal 

fractixms; dimomimde numbers (care being taken to reject all 
obsolete or unusual denominations, and to give abundant exercises calcu- 
lated to insure a definite conception of the meaning of the denominations); 



ARITHMETIC 27 

percentage, including simple, annual, and compound interest, vnih. partial 
payments, common and bank discount, and some of the more common uses 
of percentage. If, after this, the course may be extended, the next subjects 
in importance are ratio, proportion, and the square and cube roots; and 
in treating these, constant care will be necessary to introduce problems 
which occur in actual life, and as far as possible to exclude all others. 
Something of common mensuration should be introduced in connection 
with the tables of measures of extension; and the more common problems 
in commission, insurance, taxes, stocks, etc., will be readily introduced in 
percentage without occupying either much space or time. 

E te d d ^^^ *^^^ ^^^ ^^^*^ ^^'^ *^^® ^ I'^^ovQ extended course, a thor- 

cow'se ^y^^^y scientific treatment of the subject of arithmetic is de- 
sirable; and this quite as much for its disciplinary effect, in 
giving breadth and scope to the conceptions, and inducing a disposition to 
systematize and generalize, and thus to view truth in its relations, as for 
the amount of mere arithmetical knowledge which may be added to the 
pupil's stock. Here we may introduce an analytical outline of the subject, 
A I f I W^^^^^^^S *^6 topics in their philosophical relations, rather than 
luUinT ^^ *^^i^ "^^^®. W^^^^^^^ ^^^d economic order and connection. 
Thus, in treating notation, the various forms of notation can be 
introduced, as of simple and compound numbers, other scales than the 
decimal, various forms of fractional notation, the elements of the literal 
notation, etc. Then, as reduction is but changing the form of notation, 
this topic will come next, and wiU embrace all the forms of reduction 
found in common arithmetic, as from one scale to another, of denominate 
numbers, of fractions common and decimal, etc., showing how all arith- 
metical reductions are based on the one simple principle: If the unit in 
reference to which the number is to be expressed is made smaller, the 
number must be multiplied, and if the unit of expression is made larger, 
the number must be divided. Passing to the combinations of number, 
under addition all processes thus designated in arithmetic will be treated, 
and the general principles out of which they all grow will be developed. 
In this method of treatment, the pupil will not find himself merely going 
over the elementary subjects through which he plodded in the days of his 
childhood, but new ranges of thought will be presented, at the same time 
that all the principles and processes of the elementary arithmetic are re- 
viewed; the very first sections, even those on notation, reduction, and the 
fundamental rules, bringing into requisition most of his knowledge of 
arithmetic, and giving vigorous exercise to his mind in grasping new truth. 
But in addition to all this, which pertains to the method of presentation, 
there will be much of practical arithmetical knowledge to be 
Business gaine(j, Xn the business rules, discount needs a much fuller 
treatment than it has usually received in any of our text-books. 
Many problems, of frequent occurrence in modern business circles, are not 

Erovided for in these books; and, in fact, some of the most common have 
ad no solution at all which has been made public. The wonderful de- 
velopment of the insurance business demands that its principles and meth- 
ods receive a much fuller treatment than they can have in an elementary 
course: this is especially true of life insurance. Foreign exchange, cus- 
toms, equation of payments, etc., are other topics suitable for this 



28 AHITHAIETIC 

advanced course, which are quite impracticable in an elementary course 
within the reach of the masses. Two other ends will be subserved by this 
method: (1) It will be a leading purpose in teach the pupil how to invesli 
gate, and to, this end he should be put in possession of the great 
■^^^. instrument for mathematical investigation, namely, the equation, 
equation, q^ course, only the simpler forms of the equation can be intro- 
duced; nevertheless, enough can be given to enlarge very greatly the stu- 
dent's power to examine new questions for himself. By means of the 
equation, he may be taught the solution of such problems as the following, 
which would be quite out of his reach without tliis instrument: 

To find what each payment must be in order to discliarge a given 
principal and interest in a given number of equal payments at equal 
intervals of time. 

To find the present worth of a note ichich has been rimning a certain 
time, and is due at a future timCj with arinual payments on the p)Tincipal, 
and annual inte7'est', so that the purchaser shall receive a different rate of 
annual in'eresifrom that named in the note. 

These and many other important business problems are quite within 
the reach of the simple equation, and are scarcely legitimate questions to 
propose to a student who has not some knowledge of this instrument. (2) 
The second general purpose which we shall mention as being subserved by 
this course is, that by grouping all the arithmetical processes under the 
fewest possible heads and showing their philosophic dependence, the whole 
is put in the best possible form to be retained in the memory. Thus, if it 
is seen that a single principle covers all the cases in reduction, that another 
simple principle covers all the so-called ^'problems in interest" that all the 
common intricate questions in discount are readily solved by the simple 
equation, etc., these processes will not be the evanescent things which they 
have often been. 

Principles and maxims to be hepi in view ivhile teaching arithmetic. 
— I. There are two distinct and strongly marked general aims in arith- 
metical study: (I) To master the rationale of the processes, 
I'rinciples ^^^ ^2) To acquire facility and accuracy in the performance of 
^ these operations. The jneans which secure one of these ends 
" ■ are not necessarily adapted to secure the other. Thus, to secure 
the first for example, in reference to addition, the steps are, learning to 
count, learning how numbers are grouped in the decimal system, learning 
how to make the addition table, and, finally, by means of a knowledge 
of the sum of the digits taken two and two, learning to find the sum 
of any given numbers. In regard to the latter process, the pupil needs 
to know why we write units of a like order in the same column, why 
we begin at the units' column to add, why we "carry one for every 
ten," as the phrase is, etc. But all this may be known, and yet the 
pupil make sorry work in practical addition. In order to secure a knowl- 
edge of the rationale, each step needs to be clearly explained and fully 
illustrated, and then the pupil must be required to repeat the whole, 
"over and over again," in his own language. For this purpose, much 
class drill on the blackboard, in liaving each pupil separately explain 
in detail the reasons for each step of the work which he has before per- 
formed, will be necessary. Pupils may be required to bring into the 



1 

if ■ 



ARITHMETIC 29 

class practical exercises solved ou their slates, and then sufficient time be 
given to explanation from the slates. These three things repeated in about 
the same way, — (1) a clear preliminary explanation of principles either given 
in the text-book or by the teacher, (2) a thorough mastery of these prin- 
ciples by the pupil so that he can state them in a general way, and (3) a 
careful and continued repetition of them in the class, in application to 
particular examples, — will secure the first of these general ends of arithmet- 
ical study. To secure the second, namely, facility and accuracy in apply- 
ing these principles, so as to be able to add with ease, rapidity, and ac- 
curacy, long continued drill, with the mind quite unencumbered by any 
thought of the reasons for the processes, will be indispensable. It will not 
be sufficient that pupils solve accurately numerous examples, in the slow 
plodding way to which they are accustomed in their private study, but 
large numbers of fresh problems should be furnished in the class, which 
the pupils should be required to solve with the utmost promptitude, and 
with perfect accuracy. In respect to all mere numerical combinations, as 
^ 7^,7; addition, subtraction, multiplication, division, involution, evo- 
■ lution, etc., oral drills like the following will be of the greatest 
use and should be continued until the combinations can be made 
as rapidly as we would naturally read the numbers: Teacher repeats while 
the pupils follow in silence, making the combinations, "5 -|- 3 -^ 2 * -f- 3, 
squared, — 7 -r- 7 X ^ + "i^? square root, etc." These oral drills may be 
commenced at the very outset in regard to addition, and extended as the 
other rules are reached, and should not be dropped until the utmost facility 
is secured. A similar drill exercise can be secured by pointing to the 
digits as they stand on the board, or on charts, and simply speaking the 
words which indicate what combinations are required. Any figures which 
may chance to stand on the board may be used in this way to secure an 
indefinite amount of most valuable drill. This latter exercise, — making 
the combinations at sight — is of still greater practical value than the 
former, in which the ear alone is depended upon; for it is a singular fact 
that facility in one method does not insure it in the other, and the latter 
is the form in which the process is usually to be applied. Again, in the 
business rules, the principles underlying the processes must be clearly per- 
ceived, and the pupil, by continued practice in explaining solutions written 
upon the board, must become able to give in good language the reason for 
each step. But when all this is secured, there will be found need of much 
drill on examples to the answers of which he cannot have access, and which 
he must take up and solve at the moment. In this department, much 
valuable exercise may be given by handing the pupils written notes or 
papers in due form, and requiring them to compute the interest, or dis- 
count, or make the required computation at sight. But the illustrations 
now given will suffice to show that there are, as above stated, two general 
purposes — the theoretical and the practical — which must run parallel 



* The signs of division, multiplication, etc., are not used with, strict propriety in 
this specimen exercise; they are applied to the result of all the preceding operations 
in each case as though all before them had been included in a parenthesis. Thus in 
this case it is 5 -f- 3, or 8 which is meant to be divided by 2 giving 4, to this 3 added, 
giviug 7, this S(juared^ giving 49, etc. 



30 ARITHMETIC 

through all good teaching in arithmetic, and that they are generally to be 
attained by different means. 

II. In order to realize the above, a careful discrimination 
£010 a7id jjggfjg ^Q ]jQ i^iade between simply telling hoio a thing is done, 
^^' and telling icJit/ it is done. Very much of what we read in our 
text-books, and hear in class-rooms, under the name of analysis, in expla- 
nation of solutions, is nothing more than a statement of the process — a 
telling how the particular example is wrought. This vice is still so prevalent 
as to need the clearest exposition and the most radical treatment. Indeed, 
it has become so general as to be mistaken by the masses for the thing it 
purports to be; and pupil and teacher frequently seem to think that this 
parrot-like way of telling what has been done is really a logical exposition 
of the principles involved. 

HI. There should, also, be a careful discrimination between pure and 
applied arithmetic, in order that they may be so taught as to secure the 
proper end of each. Pure arithmetic is concerned solely with 
^'*^.^" abstract numbers, and the breadth of discipline to be secured 
ffjfJt/; by its study is not great; but the applications of arithmetic are 
' almost infinitely varied, and give a far wider scope for mental 
training. In the latter, the questions are not hoio to multiply, add, sub- 
tract, etc., but ichy we multiply, add, or subtract. Thus, in solving a 
problem in interest, it would be quite out of place to cumber the explana- 
tion with an exposition of the process of multiplying by a decimal, but it 
is exactly to the purpose to give the reason for so doing. The most im- 
portant object in applied arithmetic is to acquaint one's self so thoroughly 
with the conditions of the problem — if in business arithmetic, with the 
character of the business — as to discern what combinations are to be 
made with the numbers involved. Many of these applications are quite 
beyond the reach of the mind of a mere child. Thus, to attempt to 
explain to very young pupils the commercial relations which give rise to 
the problems oi foreign exehange, or the circumstances out of which many 
of the problems in regard to the value of stocks grow, would be perfectly 
preposterous. 

Problems ^^' ^" teaching applied arithmetic, it is of the first im- 

portance that the problems be such as occur in actual life, and 
that in expressing them, the usual phraseology be employed. For example, 
compare the following: 

(1) What is the present worth of $500 due 3 yr. 7 mo. 20 da. hence, at 6 
per cent per annum ? 

(2) I have a 7 per cent note for 1500, dated Feb. 6th, 1873, and due July 10th, 
1876. Mr. Smith proposes to buy it of me Sept. 18th, 1874, and to pay me such a 
sum for it as shall enable him to realize 10 per cent per annum on his investment. 
What must he pay me? In other words, what is the present worth of this note 
Sept. l.vth, 1S74? 

The first supposes a transaction which could rarely, if ever, occur, and 
even disguises that. Most pupils who have gone through discount in the 
ordinary way, if asked, "What interest does the $.500 bear, in the first ex- 
ample?" would answer, "6 per cent." Of course, it is understood that the 
money is not on interest. Moreover, we find no such paper — no notes 
not bearing interest — in the market. Again, the assumption seems to 
be that the note — if even a note is suggested at all — is discounted at the 



II 



ARITHMETIC 31 

time it is made. Thus, it is obvious that the first form is calculated to 
give the pupil quite erroneous impressions; whereas the second brings a 
real transaction into full view. 

V. From the beginning to the end of the course, it should be the aim 
to teach a few germinal principles and lead the pupil to apply them to as 
great a number of cases as his time and abiiiiy may permit. 
Principles -^i^yj^^^ ^t the very outset, a good teacher will never tell the 
iauaht ^^^^^^^ ^^^^^ ^^ count; but having taught him the names of the 
numbers up to fourteen, will show him the meaning of the 
word fourteen (four and ten) ; then he can be led to go on to nineteen 
by himself. No child ought to be iuld how to count from fifteen to 
nineteen; and after twenty, he needs only to be shown how the names 
of the decades, as twen-ty, thir-ty, for-ty, and fifty are formed, to be 
able to give the rest himself; nor does he need to be told how to count 
through more than one decade. In reference to the fundamental tables, 
it may be suggested that no pupil should be furnished with an addition, 
subtraction, multiplication, or division table ready-made. Having been 
taught the principle on which the table is constructed, he should be re- 
quired to make it for himself. As preliminary to practical addition and 
subtraction, the combinations of digits two and two which constitute 
any number up to 18 (9 -|- 9) should be made perfectly familiar. Ihus 
the child should recognize 14-4, and 2 -f- 3, as 5; 1 + ^, 2 -\- 4, and 
3 -f" 3, as 6 etc. ; and this should be made the foundation of addition and 
subtraction. He should be taught, that if he knows that 3 -f 4 = 7, 
he knows by implication that 23 + 4 = 27, 33 + 4 = 37, etc. Passing 
from the primary arithmetic, he should be taught common fractions by 
means of the fewest principles and rules consistent with his ability. 
Thus in multiplication and division. To multiply or to divide a fraction 
by a whole number, and To multiply or to divide a whole number by a 
fraction, are all the cases needed; and these should be taught in strict 
conformity with practical principles. Thus, ^to multiply a whole number 
by a fraction is to take a fractional part of the number; and to divide 
a number by a fraction is to find how many times the latter is con- 
tained in the former. To cover all the forms of reduction of denomi- 
nate numbers, nothing is needed but the principle or rule, that to pass 
from higher to lower denominations, we multiply by the number which 
it takes of the lower to make one of the higher; and to pa s from lower 
to higher we divide by the same number. These simple principles should 
be seen to cover all cases, those involving fractions as well as others. 

In like manner, by a proper form of statement of examples, and an 
occasional suggestion or question, most of the separate rules usually given 
under percentage may be dispensed with. In dealing with the cases usually 
denominated problems in interest^ aU that is needed is the following brief 
rule: Find the effect p)roduced by using a unit of the numbei' required, 
under the given circumstances, and compare this /with the given effect. 
Tliis should be made to cover the cases usually detailed under six of 
eight rules. 

Stages of ^^- There are three stages of mental development which 
inetital de- should be carefully kept in view in all elementary teaching: 
veloj^ment. (1) The earliest stage, in which the faculties chiefly exercised 



32 ART EDUCATION — ARTS 

are observation, or perception, and memory, and in which the pupil is 
not competent to formulate thought, or to derive benefit from abstract, 
formal statements of principles, definitions, or processes; (2) An inter- 
mediate sta/e, in which the reasoning faculties (abstraction, judgment, 
etc. ) are coming into prominence, and in which the pupil needs to be 
shown the truth, so that he may have a clear perception of it, before 
he is presented with a formal, abstract statement, the work, however, 
not b^iag concluded until he can state the truth (definition, principle, 
propositioa, or rule) intelligently, in good language, and in general (ab- 
stract) terms; (3) An ullimate stays, or that in which the mental powers 
are so matured and trained, that the pupil is competent to receive truth 
from the general, abstract, or formal statement of it. At this stage, 
definitions, principles, propositions, and statements of processes may be 
given first, and illustrated, demonstrated, or applied afterward. (See 
Analytic Method, and Developing Method ) 

ART EDCJCATlO^i. Every complete system of education must 
proviJe for the culture of all the varied faculties of the human mind, 
physical and intellectual, moral and spiritual, esthetic and emotional; 
and must, besides, supply the means necessary lor the development of 
those practical capacities upon which the social and national progress 
of every civilized people depends. Among the agencies required for this 
purpose, art education claims profound attention. The element of beauty, 
which exists in the human mind, when made the subject of progressive 
cultivation, and applied to the various industries of social life, becomes 
a thing of pacun ary as well as esth tic value. The training of the hand 
and eye. which is obtained by drawing, is proved by experience to be of 
very great advantage to the operative in every branch of industry; indeed, 
in many occupations, drawing is indispensable to success. But the value 
is still greater if to this simple training, the culture of the perception and 
conception of forms anJ their combinations is added, leading to skill in de- 
signing — a branch of art of the highest value in very many departments 
of manufacturing industry. "Art education," says an eminent authority, 
"embraces all those appUances and methods of training by which the sense 
of form and proportion is developed. It is successful when the student 
unerringly discriminates between what is ugly and what is beautiful, and 
expresses his ideas of form in drawing as readily as ideas of other sorts on 
the written page." (See Drawlxg.) 

ARr3, Libaral. The term arts, or lihprnl arts, was, during the 
middle ages, applied to certain studies which constituted an essential part 
of a learned education. The full course of sturly, at that period, embraced 
"the seven liberal arts," three of which — grammar, logic, and rhetoric — 
composed what was called the irivium (the triple way to eloquence); and 
the remaining four — music, arithmetic, geometry, and astronomy — 
constituted the qnadrivium (the quadruple way). The term faculti/ of 
arts denoted, in the univp.rsities, those who devoted themselves to philos- 
ophy and science, in contradistinction to the faculty of theology, of medi- 
cine, or of law. Master (Lat. magister) was used to designate one who 
taught the liberal arts; and doctor one who taught or practiced divinity, 
law. or medicine. The first degree (gradus) of proficiency in the arts, 
instituted, as it is said, by Gregory IX about the middle of the 13th 



I 



\ ASSOCIATION — ASTRONOMY 33 

century, vras that of hachelor (Lat. haccalaureus )\ and the second that 
of master, which originally conferred the right, and indeed imposed the 
duty, of teaching one or more of the liberal arts. This title, in the colleges 
and universities of the United States, England, and France, is now merely 
honorary. (See Degrees.) 

ASSOCIATION OF IDEAS. By this is meant that relation or 

connection which is formed between ideas, so that one immediately suggests 

. . the other, hence called by Dr. Brown the principle of simple 

ejini ton. g^^gg^gHg^i^ 'Vhis, law of mental operation demands a most care- 
ful consideration in both moral and intellectual education. Feelings of 
pleasure and pain are often associated with certain ideas or objects in the 
minds of pupils at school, arid thus control their whole after life. Antip- 
athies, prejudices, or predilections are thus so firmly fixed, 
Appiica- ^Y\2it they can never be eradicated. The law of association, 
teahi^ rightly applied by the teacher, may thus be used to establish 
in the minds of his pupils an abhorrence of meanness and wrong, 
of falsehood and dishonesty which will go far toward forming a thoroughly 
virtuous character. This law has a very important application in the in- 
tellectual training of the young, and in the general cultivation of the mind. 
The power to control the succession of our ideas or thoughts very much 
depends upon the habits we may have formed in establishing these associa- 
tions. If t-he ideas with which a person's mind is stored are connected 
only by arbitrary or accidental associations, he will find it difficult to ar- 
range his thoughts on any subject in a regular, logical order. On the 
other hand, there are minds so trained as to be able, at any moment, to 
command their ideas upon any subject with which they are acquainted, so 
that they flow forth in an unintermittiug logical stream. This is the in- 
tellectual quality to be aimed at by the teacher, in connection wdth the as- 
sociation of ideas. It follows, too, from this that the law by which ideas 
become permanently associated by means of repetition, should have a most 
important place in the consideration of the teacher. Certain branches of 
knowledge require the special application of this law; such as arithmetical 
tables, grammatical paradigms, and all other things that, having no logical 
relations, are to be arbitrarily associated. The point to be gained in such 
acquisitions is to connect these ideas in the mind in such a way that one 
will instantly, and, as it were, automatically, suggest the other. The per- 
ceptions of sight and hearing may both be brought into play in accomplish- 
ing this. Hence the use of the blackboard and slate, particularly the 
former; also the importance of repeating aloud from the printed page. 

ASTRONOMY (Gr. aarpov, a star, and v6//,og, a law), the science 

which treats of the heavenly bodies, has peculiarly strong claims to a 

place in every educational scheme of study, both as a means 

Place 111 of intellectual training, and on account of the practical value 
education. ^^ ^^^ ^^^^^ ^^ ^^^^^ ^Yhich it embraces, as well as its ennobling 
influence upon the mind of the student. 

In teaching this subject, the order of investigation — the analytic 

method, should be at first adopted, for two reasons: (1) because in this 

. way we are able to impress upon the mind of the pupil 

method clearer conceptions of fundamental facts, and (2) because he 
required, will thus form the habits of thought which are particularly 



34 ASTRONOMY 

needed in the study of this science. A\^e should insist upon his observing 
for himself all the more obvious phenomena, and then stating, as fully 
and accurately as possible, the result of his observations. It is astonishing 
how many persons go through the world, filling the measure of a long life, 
without casting anything but an indifferent, uninquiring, and uninterested 
glance at the glories of the stellar firmament. So it is also with children, 
before their attention is attracted, and their interest aroused, to observe 
the wonders of the heavens. The teacher, therefore, should lead his pupils, 
by questioning them, to notice some of the most ordinary phenomena; as 
the rising and setting of the sun and the moon, the phases of 
Oliservia- ^j^g latter, the apparent diurnal revolution of the stars, the posi- 
tion and ^j^j-^g ^^^^ apparent movements of the larger and more conspicu- 
mjerence. ^^^^ planets among the stars, the ebb and flow of the tides, the 
solar and lunar eclipses, etc. Finding, from such questioning, that they 
have really been inattentive to what they might readily have observed, the 
pupils will strive to see these things for themselves, and will thus, in a 
short time, acquire such an experience of their own, as will enable them 
to pursue the study with interest and success. As soon as they have 
acquired a clear conception of tliese natural appearances, their attention 
should be called to the explanation of them; and in this, for a short time 
at least, it would be well to let the pupils try to think out for themselves 
some hypothesis to account for what they have seen, and not to give them 
the correct scientific explanation until they have exhausted their own 
conjectures. For, it is not so much facts that we desire to communicate 
as mental habits; and, by the process here recommended, whatever facts 
are finally imparted, though they may be few, will be indelibly impressed 
upon the memory. This process is, however, strictly in accordance with 
the educational axiom, that the pupil should be told nothing which he 
may be made to discover for himself; to which may perhaps be added, that 
he should be told nothing until he has endeavored to discover it for himself, 
and has failed in the effort. (See Science.) 

After this preliminary instruction, an elementary course in astronomy 
should embrace the following topics arranged in the order of presentation: 
^ — (1) The earth — its form, magnitude, motions, etc., with the 
^^^^,^g ^phenomena connected with it, and arising from its relations to 
the sun, such as day and night, and the seasons; (2) The solar 
system — its general arrangement, the bodies of which it is composed, with 
their magnitudes, distances, periodic times, the position of their orbits and 
axes, and their apparent motions; (3) The circles etc. of the sphere; as 
equator, equinoctial, ecliptic, meridians, tropics, polar circles, longitude and 
latitude, both terrestrial and celestial, declination and right ascension, the 
horizon, vertical circles, altitude and azimuth, etc. If the preliminary 
instruction has been correct and thorough, these various tropics can be 
taught in such a manner as, at every point, to appeal to the learner's in- 
telligence, and, not as a mass of arbitrary facts, encumbering his memory 
for a while, to drop out afterward as useless lumber. For example, if 
we would lead his mind to a clear idea of the use of longitude on the 
surface of the earth, we ask him to locate, that is, to describe the location 
of, any point on the surface of the globe. He will soon be led to perceive 
that this cannot be done without some standards of reference; and thus 



ATHENEUM — ATTENTION 35 

the use of the equator and meridians will become obvious, and, in a similar 
nianiier, that of altitude and azimuth, in locating the positions of stais and 
planets in the visible heavens, or right ascension and declination, in fixing 
their places in the celestial sphere. 

No part of this science need be taught arbitrarily. Even the numerical 
facts, as distances, magnitudes, periods of revolution, etc.. should, in part 
at least, be worked out, however rudely, for the student from the 
arhdraru ^^^^ ^^ observation; or he should be required to work them out 
*^* himself, after being taught the principles and methods involved. 
Thus, the teacher may begin with the diameter of the earth, and show how 
tliis has been determined; then the distance of the sun from the earth, 
explaining" in this connection the nature and use of parallax; then the 
linear diameter of the sun from its apparent cian.eter; then the sidereal 
year of the earth, and the sidereal periods of the planets from their observed 
synodic periods; and next the distances of the jh.nets from an application 
of Kepler s third law, etc. In this way, the whole subject will be so woven 
together in the pupils mind, that it will be impossible for him to forget 
its fundamental principles, however few of its facts of detail he may retain. 
After such a course it will be a very simple matter to present for his study 
the other important topics comprehended in the general subject. 

'J'he use of diagrams and apparatus should be constaLtly resorted to 

in giving the instruction here marked out; but great care should be ob- 

served to prevent the use of apparatus from superseding or cb- 

Diagrams gemming the ideas obtained from the cbservation of nature itself. 

*^" The student must come down to the apparatus from a clear con- 
-^^ ' ^ " * ception of the actual j henom.ena, usirg the machine to apprehend 
the manner in which tha phenomena occur. Very simple apparatus is 
much to be preferred to cumbrous and complicated niaf hinery,— admirable, 
perhaps, as pieces of ingenious workmanship but of little value for the 
purpose of illustration. The student should, however, be thoroughly 
practiced in the use of the globes, as a very essential part of the training 
comprehended in this branch of instruction. '\ he use of a telescope, of at 
least moderate power, is also a valuable means of augm^enting both the 
interest and information of the student, especially in connection with the 
stuily of uranography, which is certainly one of the mcst useful as well as 
entertaining departments of astronomical science. In this part of the 
study, a good planisphere will prove a valuable adjunct. 

ATHENEUM, or Athenaeum (Gr. 'AdTjvalov^ a building dedicated 
to Athena, or Minerva, the tutelary goddess of Athens), was the name 
applied to a temple at Athens, in which poets and scholars used to meet 
and read their productions. In modern times, this name is frequently used 
to denote a scientific association or the building in which such an association 
meets. In Belgium and Holland, it is used to designate a school of a higher 
grade, ranking next to the university. 

ATLA3 is the name applied to a collection of maps, first thus used by 
Mercator in the sixteenth century, the figure of Atlas, bearing the globe 
on his shoulders, being on the title-page of his book of maps. 

ATTENTION (from the Latin tenders, to strain, implying a strained 
effort of the mind) is perhaps the most important of the mind s activities, 
since the quality and dtiration of the intellectual impressions depend upon 



36 ATTENTION 

^, the degree of attention with which the faculties have been 
• V y exerted in acquiring them. There is no point of difference 
importa . ^^g^^y^gj^ ^j^g trained and the untrained intellect so striking as 
the voluntary power of fixing the mind for a continuous period of time 
upon any given subject. Hence, to discipline this power becomes, in an 
especial manner, the office and duty of the educator. Commencing with 

the most rudiniental exercise of the observing faculties, he passes 
ffow Qjj^ gj.gp jrjy ^iQp^ to the process by which, through the entire and 
raine .. determined giving up, as it were, of the whole mind to the 
contemplation and study ot any given class of facts or ideas, the student 
learns to evolve new truths, or analytically to explain the intricacies of 
abstruse problems. When the attention has become obedient to the will, 
this branch of mental training is complete; and, therefore, the aim of the 
educator should be to instill habits of controlling the attention, and rigidly 
preventing those of desultory, wayward application, or listlessness. This 
power of continuous attention is, without doubt, the most valuable result 
of intellectual training. To produce this result, it is of the first importance 
to interest the pupils, especially in the earlier stages of instruction. Young 
minds have an intense desire to know — not words merely, but things. 
They have a strong craving for new ideas, and take the deepest enjoyment 
in the exercise of the perceptive and conceptive faculties. Hence the 
importance ot object-teaching. The perceptive faculties are exercised in 
the observation of the sensible qualities of all the dififerent things with 
which the child is surrounded, or which may be presented to its view by 
the teacher tor the purpose ot attracting its attention; and these objects 
should be diversified as much as possible, so as to appeal to the child s love 
of novelty. Hence, there are three things especially needed: (1) Constant 
change of exercises; (2) Short and well adapted lessons; and (3) The 
presentation of ideas before words, objects before names. 

On other accounts, the attention should not be exercised for long 
periods of time. When the teacher perceives that it is flagging, it is best 
to stop the exercise; for all that is done while the childs attention is re- 
laxed, is worse than fruitless. Jt is from an inattention to this truth that 
children are often made incurably listless in school. They are set at exer- 
cises which awaken no interest in their minds, and, consequently, acquire 
inerailicable habits of superficial, careless attention. In all the subsequent 
studies of the pupil, it is essential that his interest be awakened as much as 
possible; but it will be found that there is a reciprocal action of interest 
and attention. The pupil having acquired in the first stages, in some degree, 
the habit of voluntary attention, will, as a matter of duty, apply his mind 
to the studies prescribed for him; and this very application, if earnest and 
diligent, will soon excite the deepest interest in the subjects of study. The 

dependence of memory upon attention is well known to all 
Memory ^y|^^ j^^^.g observed, however superficially, the operations of the 
attention ^^'^"'^' ^"^ *^^ power to recall at will our mental impressions 

and acquisitions is perhaps directly in proportion to the atten- 
tion with which the associations binding them together were formed. When 
these are feeble, loose, accidental, or formed with little volition, the mind 
will have but an imperfect control of its thoughts, and, consequently, will 
be wanting in the chief quahty of a sound intellectual character. 



AUTHOKITY 37 

Attention requires a vigorous exercise of the brain, and, therefore, 
is, more or less, dependent upon the physical condition. When this has 

been exhausted by labor, either bodily or mental, or weakened 
Bdation -^y. (jiggase, attention is scarcely possible; and the effort to give 
icaUeaUh ^^ ^^ injurious, because it induces still farther nervous prost- 
* ration. Neither should deep attention be exerted or attempted 
immediately after a hearty meal. The nervous energy is then directed 
to the digestive functions, which active cerebration will greatly disturb. 
Hence, the diet of a student should be light, but nutritious. The 
brain should also be supplied with thoroughly oxygenated blood. No 
one can think well in an impure atmosphere, especially if it is con- 
taminated by the breathing of many persons. In this way, children 
often suffer a serious loss of health. 1 hey are crowded in apartments 
too small for the number to be accommodated, and very imperfectly 
ventilated; and, at the same time, are expected to give close and earnest 
attention to the subjects of instruction. This is a phj^sical impossibility, 
and the attempt to do it must always be followed by disastrous results. 
In no respect has the aphorism, "A sound mind in a sound body" a 
more forcible application than to the exercise of attention. For what 
contrast can be stronger than that presented by the poor wretch whom 
disease has bereft of every mental state but wandering thoughts or ab- 
solute vacuity, and the man of sound health and a well-trained mind, 
who is ready at will to concentrate all his intellectual energies upon a 
given subject, and to keep them steadily fixed upon it until the object 
of his investigations has been attained ! (Kee Intellectual Education.) 
AUTHORITY (Lat. aucioritas), the right to command, or the per- 
sons or body by whom the right is exercised; sometimes 'also, in matters 

pertaining to the intellect, the power to influence or exact belief. 

vlied^i' education, the term has especially this twofold application: 

education 0-) **^ ^^^ discipline, or management of children; (2) to their 

instruction. The primary authority, both in respect to time 
and importance, to which the child is subjected is that of the parent; and 
for several years no other can be exercised over it, except in loco parentis. 
It is true, the state extends a protecting care over the child; but only by 
an exercise of its authority over the parents, requiring them to perform 
their proper duties as the natural guardians of their children. When the 
parents neglect or repudiate these duties or are guilty of acts in contraven- 
tion of them, the state interposes its authority, but not even then directly, 
upon the child, but only to place it under the authority of those who will 
better care for its interests, and perform for it the natural duties of its 
parents. The right exercise of parental authority is, therefore, one of the 

most important elements in the education of the child. (See 
L^^'j Home Education.) If the child from its earliest years has been 
au loruy. accustomed to recognize and submit to the authority of its 
parents, firmly but judiciously exercised, there will be, ordinarily, but little 
difficulty, on the part of the teacher, in making his authority effective. 
The child, on entering the school, feels for the first time that it is under an 
authority different from that of its parents, to which it has previously 
learned* to submit with unquestioning obedience. Its first impulse is 
perhaps, to refuse submission to this new authority; and the influence 



38 AUTHORITY 

of the teacher over the chUd will greatly depend upon the manner in 
which obedience is enforced. (See Discipline.) In the authority of the 
teacher, as well as in that of the parents, two elements are 
Authority combined, — one that attracts and encourages, and one that 
^•^ ^^^ curbs and subdues. Without the former, authority is arbitrary 
teacher. ^^^^ violent; without the latter, it is feeble and often power- 
less In other words, the authority that truly educates should be founded 
not alone upon fear, but upon love and esteem as well. Ihe authority of 
the teacher is not, Hke that of the pare its, based upon a natural law, but 
is delec^ated either by the parents or by those who stand in the parental 
relation to the child. This is what is meant when it is said that the teacher 
is in loco parentis] not that he has exactly the authority of the parent, but 
only so far as it is not Hmited by the general usages of society, or by 
special contracts. The conscientious teacher cannot, tor a moment, doubt 
that it is his duty strictly to observe these limits; since, by wiUtully over- 
steppincr them, he must either break a contract, or violate a most sacred 
trust; and, in either case, his authority will be either weakened or 

destroyed. . , , • ■, • , 

Many cases will arise, both in the family and in the school, in which 
children will refuse submission to the authority of their educators; and 
hence the mode of enforcing authority becomes a matter of 
Enforce- genous importance. Authority, of course, implies a control of 
fnentoj ^YiQ will of those over whom it is exercised; and the means by 
authority, ^y^j^ ^-^is is to be obtained will differ according to the disposi- 
tion and habits of the child, and, to a considerable extent, also according 
to the character of the educator himself. A violent, irascible, morose, or 
capricious parent or teacher will have a constant conflict with the child, 
and will never be able to establish his authority, to whatever extent, for 
the time being, he may compel a seeming obedience. Authority should 
not be exercised as such; "the right-feeling parent," says Herbert Spencer, 
"like the philantropic legislator, will not rejoice in coercion, but will rejoice 
in dispensing with coercion." (See Moral Education.) In this connection, 
arises the question of the propriety of corporal punishment to enforce 
authority in the family or school. All educators are agreed, that the use 
of physical force, if at all sanctioned, should be only, as a dernier ressort, 
brought in when every other means of coercion has failed; some, however, 
condemn the "use of the rod" utterly. Locke assents to it only in cases 
of extreme obstinacy. 

'i'he principle of authority has an important application to the mental 
as well as the moral education of children. In the earliest stages of intel- 
lectual instruction, the child must receive most of the informa- 
Authority ^j^j^ imparted to it on the authority of its teacher; but modern 
^'d^^^r^ principles and methods require that, even from the first, as 
far as possible, the child should learn for itself by the exer- 
cise of its perceptive and concep*ive faculties, and not merely on the 
authority of its teachers. Much, however, must be imparted, that is be- 
yond the scope of the child's understanding and experience; and, conse- 
quently, there will be a wide range for the operation of the teacher .s 
authority. It will, of course, be greater or less in proportion to his personal 
influence in other respects, and particularly in proportion to the confidence 



BACHELOR 39 

felt by his pupils in his wisdom and attainments. The teacher should in- 
fuse into the minds of his pupils an intellectual independence, — not a 
skeptical questioning of everything, but a thoughtful investigation of the 
uliy and the irlierefore, a diligent balancing of the weight of testimony, 
and a habit of inquiring into the ultimate reasons of things, as far as they 
can be adduced. This will impart concentrativeness and activity of mind, 
and call into exercise the judgment and reflection upon whatever is 
presented to the attention, Avhether in study, reading, or conversation. 
Kousseau severely criticised the pedagogy of his time, for basing the 
science of education on the princi])le of authority. He demanded 
that the pupil should not know any thing merely because it was told 
him by the teacher, but because he understood it. lie should not 
learn the science, but discover it. "If," said he, "you give him an au- 
thority instead of a reason, he will never think independently, but will al- 
ways be the football of the opinions of others." This is an extreme view, 
as every teacher of experience must know. The authority of the teacher 
cannot be eliminated in intellectual education; since to do so would put the 
undeveloped understanding of the pupil on an equality with the mature 
and developed intellect of the instructor; neither can its just limits be def- 
initely fixed. The disposition to accept the statements of the teacher as 
truths, when not fully understood, should be cultivated. Modesty is often 
as requisite and as becoming in thought as in morals. The great principle 
to be kept in view is, that authority should not have its aim within itself, 
but that its object should be to develop the faculties of the pupil, so that 
he may fully understand as true and right, what he has received on the 
authority of the teacher. 

'J'he following practical principles are enjoined in a recent publication 
of great merit: ''(1) Restraints should be as few as the situation admits 
of. (2) Duties and offenses should be definitely expressed, so 
Prncticnl ^^ ^^ ^^ clearly understood. (3) Offenses should be graduated 
pi Dicipies. ^^(,Qj.ji,^g ^o ^]^gij. degree of heinousness. (4) The application 
of punishment should be regulated according to certain principles. [See 
PuxNisHMENT.] (5) Voluntary dispositions are to be trusted as far as they 
can go. (6) By organization and arrangement the occasions of disorder 
are avoided. (7) Ihe awe or influence of authority is maintained by a 
certain formality and state. (8) It is understood that authority, with all 
its appurtenances, exists for the benefit of the governed, and not as the 
perquisite of the governor. (9) The operation of mere vindictiveness 
should be curtailed to the uttermost. (10) So far as circumstances allow, 
every one in authority should assume a benign character, seeking the benefit 
of those under him, using instruction and moral suasion so as to stave off 
the necessity of force. (11) The reasons for repression and discipline 
sl.ould, as far as possible, be made intelligible to those concerned; and 
should be referable solely to the general good." See Bain, Education 
as a Science (N. Y., 1881). 

BACHELOR (Lat. Baccniaureus), a term applied to one who has 
reached a certain grade in a college or university education; as, Bachelor 
of Arts (A.. B., or B. A.), Bachelor of Civil Laio (B. 0. L.), Bachelor of 



40 BELLES-LETTRES — BIBLE 

DivinUi/ (B. D.), etc. The word as thus used is of uucertiiiu etymology. 
It was 'introduced iuto the University of Paris by Pope Gregory IX., in 
the 13th century, and applied as a title to those students who had passed 
certain preliminary examinations, but were not prepared for admission 
into the rank of master, teacher, or doctor. Afterward, it was adopted 
by other European universities, to indicate the lowest academical honor, 
as now used in this country and Europe. (See Arts, and Degrees.) 

BELIiES-LETTRES is a French expression for polite literature, i.e., 
books and lanj:;uage in so far as they are shaped by the idea of beauty. It 
has been used in English to designate a somewhat vague class of studies 
connected, more or less, with the mastery of literature on its esthetic side. 
Some of the colleges in the United States have had a professor of helles- 
lettres, who h:is taught rhetoric and elocution mainly; but also poetry, prose 
fiction, criticism, classical philology, and the humanities in general. 

BENEVOLENCE, good-will, general and habitual kindness of dis- 
position in our feelings, not only toward each other, but towartl the lower 
animals, is a trait of character which should receive a careful cultivation 
in the education of the young. Children, in general, are not naturally 
benevolent. Their undeveloped sympathies, tlieir active propensities and 
love of sport, and their pronenes:> to what is called by phrenologists "de- 
structiveness", incline them to acts of selfishness and cruelty. In order to 
check this tendency, their sensibilities should, as much as possible, be 
aroused ; they should not be subjected to hai-sh or inconsiderate treatment, 
and they should not only read and hear stories that awaken their sym- 
pathies, but should be made to observe objects of compassion that require 
their active aid ; and they should ba incited and encouraged in every pos- 
sible way to self-sacrifice in relieving the sufferings of others. In their 
conduct toward each othar. they should be habituated to lay aside their 
resentments, to forgive injuries, to put the kindest and most considerate 
construction upon the acts of their companions, and to dismiss from their 
minds all suspicions and jealousies, as well as all distrust tliat is not based 
upon indisputable facts. The quarrels of chihh^en may for this purpose 
become the means of wholesome discipline in instruction ; since the dis- 
putants themselves may be made to feel the desirability of mutual for- 
bearance, and their associates, by being brought in to aid in reconciling 
them, may be impressed with the beautiful character of the peace maker. 
In the treatment of the lower animals by children, there is nuich occasion 
for this kind of training; and the skillful teacher will not fail to make use 
of the numerous incidents of school life to impress this virtue upon the 
child's cliaracter. (See Moral Educath^n'.) 

BIBLE (Gr. ra 3i3?.ui, the books), the book which contains the sacred 
scriptures of the Jews and Christians. The use of the Bible in schools 
has been for some time a subject of earnest and often heated discussion. 
Some regard this use as a necessary adjunct to every system of education, 
secular as well as religious, inasmuch as they consider the Bible to be the 
basis of all religious truth or spiritual knowledge, and consequently in- 
dispensable to tile complete development of the mental and moral character. 
Moreover, it is the view of this cla>is of educators that secular and religious 
education should be always intimately conjoined. Others, who uphold 
state or comu^ou school education, which they regaixl as necessarily uu- 



BLACKBOARD 41 

sectarian, deem it impracticable to use the Bible in schools, either by- 
study or simple reading, without trenching upon their unsectarian character, 
and hence relegate its use to the Church and Sunday school. Still others, 
who regard the Church as the divinely constituted and inspired source of 
all religious instruction, oppose the use of the Bible on the ground that it 
constantly requires the special exposition which only the Church can give, 
or authorize to be given. For a full account of this agitation, see Cycio- 
pee lin of Educ<iti'))i, 

BLA.CKBOAKD, an important piece of school apparatus now in use 
in all classes and grades of schools. It is generally constructed of wood, 
and is either attached to the wall of the room, or made to stand on an 
easel or to revolve in a frame. 

The blackboard for the use of the teacher in giving his instruction or 
explanations to the whole school or class, should, for the sake of conveni- 
ence, be placed near his desk and in front of the pupils. It is 
he used ^ ^^^^^ advantage also to have sufficient blackboard surface to 
admit of its use by all the pupils of a class, or by sections of it. 
This is especially desirable in higher instruction; but even in elementary 
district schools will be found to be quite desirable. Some of the pupils 
of a school can be employed in writing, drawing, or working out arith- 
metical problems on the blackboards, while others are engaged in oral 
recitation. There is scarcely any branch of instruction, or any kind of 
teaching, from the object lesson of the primary school to the lecture of the 
college professor, ia which the use of the blackboard is not found to be al- 
most indispensable. In teaching mathematics, it has an especial value. 
Scarcely a teacher, at the present day, in the most remote country school- 
house, would think of teaching arithmetic without a blackboard. But it 
is a most important aid also in teaching writing, drawing, geography, 
grammar, composition, history, and music; indeed, in every thing that ad- 
mits of, or requires, an ocular demonstration addressed to a large number 
of pupils. Blackboard d awing can be made very instructive and interest- 
ing, particularly when crayons of different colors are used. In some schools 
this kind of drawing is carried to great perfection. Map-drawing, or rapid 
map-sketc')ing, on the blackboard, is also very useful in t aching geog- 
raph}'-. Recitations on this subject may be conducted by this means. One 
of thi pupils draws the outline of the state or country which is the 
subject of the lesson; another fills in the rivers; the next, the cities, etc., 
till the map is complete. As the study of maps depends so largely on 
the proper and attentive use of the eye, this method of blackboard instruc- 
tion cannot fail to be quite effective. 

Blackboard illustration will also prove very effective in the oral teach- 
ing, by a series of lessons or lectures, of abstract subjects other than 
„ , mathematics, such as logic, metaphysics, mental and moral 

' 7?^ ^h P^iio3ophy, etc. By this means the divisions and subdivisions 
ora.ejc ■ ^^ ^^^ subject, with their exact logical relations, are presented 

''^* to the mind through the eye, and a much stronger, clearer 
and more durable impression is thus made. For an excellent example 
of this kind of teaching, see Mabk Hopkins, Ah Ouiline Study of Man 
(New York, 1876). 



k 



42 BLIND 

I 

BLIND, Education of the. The blind constitute, in every country, 
a numerous class of afflicted persons for whom special inatrudion is 
needed. An institution for the blind should comprehend three schools, or 
departments; namely, the literary department or school proper, the school 
f), ' of music, and the industrial school. This organization is 
Orgamza- ^gggj^^j^j^ [^^ order to give the general instruction which every 

''^^' child needs, and also such special training as blindness renders 
necessary. In the literary department, the course of instruction includes 
the branches which are usually taught, in the common and high schools, 
to the seeing; the principal difference being in the apparatus and methods 
of teaching employed. Instead of the blackboard, wall-maps, slate and 
. ,. pencil, and pen and ink, there are employed topographical maps, 

pp laiices. gjjji3QggQ(j books, slates with movable type to represent numerals 
and algebraic signs, geometrical cards with figures in relief, metal tablets 
for tangible writing, according to the New York point system, — also for 
the New York system of alphabetic writing and musical notation. 

The first efforts to instruct the blind found expression in an attempt 
to teach them how to read by means of the fingers. Many alphabets in 
relief have been devised, but all may be included in two classes: (1) Those 
composed of lines, forming the ordinary capital or small letters in their 
original form, or in some modification of it; (2) Those in v/hich the letters 
are formed of raised points, or dots, in no respect resembling the ordinary 
letters, and called the point alphabet. These can be both printed and 
written in a tangible form. The use of line letter text-books in classes is 
very limited, from the fact that a classification according to reading ability 
differs entirely from that based upon mental capacity and attainments. 
For this reason, the instruction in each of the depaitraents is chiefly 
,_ . oral. The instruction of the blind in music is of paramount 

importance. It develops and refines the taste, promotes general 
culture, affords constant and inexhaustible enjoyment, as well as the means 
of respectable support. The musical course of instruction comprises voice 
lessons, part and chorus singing, lessons and practice in piano and organ 
playing, and a thorough course of teaching and training in the tuning of 
pianos. Blind organists, teachers of the piano, and piano-tuners may be 
found in all parts of the country. Heretofore, this department of in- 
struction has been exclusively oral; but there is now a piano instruction 
book, in i\\Q New York point system of musical notation, \>y which the 
blind pupil may learn by finger-reading from the printed or written page. 

The importance of mechanical training, in comparison with other 
branches of instruction, in the education of the blind, is a matter of vital 
... . , interest. Some are of opinion that instruction in trades is of the 
, . . first importance; others give it simply a place co-ordinate with 
^' other departments of teaching; while still others attach the chief 
importance to such branches as lead to those employments in which skilled 
manual operations are required. The latter position cannot be maintained, 
since in all such operations the guidance of the eye is more or less essential 
to perfection and dexterity of manipulation; from which fact it is obvious 
that purely mechanical pursuits are not necessarily the best adapted to 
those who are deprived of sight. This being so, it is a great mistake to 
rest the education of the young blind, and the prospects of their future 



BOOK-KEEPING 43 

usefulness and welfare, exclusively upon such employments. The true 
plan is to give manual pursuits such a place in the scheme of education as 
is required by the conditions which blindness imposes. The training of 
the young blind in one or more industrial occupations should be rigidly 
enforced, not because such employments furnish the only, the best, or the 
most available means of future support, but because such training and 
discipline of the head and the hand in work are necessary to the proper 
education of every pupil. Thus, manual training is made the means to an 
end, but not the end itself. Male pupils are taught to make brooms, 
mats, mattresses, and brushes; to put cane bottoms into chairs; and to 
perform other handicraft labors. Female pupils are taught to sew, knit, 
and crochet, to use the sewing and knitting machine, and to work a great 
variety of articles useful and ornamental. 

BOOK-KEEPIN'G, a system of recording the transactions of a 
business so as to exhibit, in a plain and comprehensive manner, its condi- 
. tion and progress. The usual method of such a record comprises 
? ^ !f (l) a history of the transactions at the date and in the order of 
their occurrence;, in a book, called the day-hook^ and (2) the 
classifying of results in a book called the ledger. This classification 
consists in arranging upon opposite sides of separate statements, or 
accounts, all items of purchase, sale, receipt, expenditure, investment, 
withdrawal, production, cost, etc. , which, in any way, affect the business. 
The accounts taken together should thus be adequate to express all that 
„. , one may need to know of the progress of the business and its 

e ??L condition at any time. The simplest form of record, by day- 

book and ledger only, here explained, is applicable merely to a 
very limited business. In the more extended and complicated enterprises, 
various concurrent or auxiliary books are required, their number and 
character depending upon the nature and peculiar operations of the 
business. In even the simplest kinds of book-keeping, it is customary to 
use an intermediate book between the day book and ledger, called the 
journal, the office of which is to state, or separate, each transaction so as 
to simplify its transfer to the ledger. 

Double "^^^ ^^^^ competent system of book-keeping is that known 

entm ^^ double entry, so called from the fact that the complete record 
of any transaction requires at least two entries in the ledger 
— one on the debit or debtor side of some account, and one on the credit 
or creditor side of some other account. The terms debit and credit 
(meaning debtor and creditor, and usually marked Dr. and Or.) are, for 
the most part, used arbitrarily. They are really significant only when 
applied to personal accounts; but their uniform application to all accounts 
is a matter of great convenience. The charm and utility of the double- 
entry system consist in the philosophical adjustment of mathematical facts 
to the most exacting requirements of finance, and in the tests afforded of 
Underl i- ^^^^ correctness of the work at any point. The simple principles 
. -^^ underlying the system may be succinctly stated thus: (1) All 
j:^ financial resources, or items of wealth, are measurable by the 

* money standard; (2) The sum of all the resources of a concern, 
thus measured, less the sum of all its liabilities, is its real or present worth; 
(3) AU increase or diminution in wealth comes from one of two sources; 



44 BOOK-KEEPING 

namely, the receiving of more or less for an article than its cost, or the 
appreciation or depreciation of the value of an article while in possession; 
(4) The immediate result of all gains or losses is the adding to, or taking 
from, the net worth of the concern; and, consequently, the net gain or net 
loss of a business during any specified time must agree with the increase 
or diminution of its net worth for the same period. The foregoing 
propositions may be said to be self-evident facts; but they are important 
facts nevertheless, and such as any competent presentment of business 
affairs must recognize and enforce; and this is just what double-entry 
book-keeping does. 

'J'he science, or philosophy, of the system is shown in the ledger, which, 
as before stated, consists of nccounts. An account is a collection of homo- 
geneous items pertaining to some part of the business, such as 
Accounts the receipt and disbursement of money (cash), the purchase and 
described. ^^^ ^^ goods, the is ue and redemption of notes, the incurring 
and liquidating of personal indebtedness, etc. All accounts are alike in 
their structure, each having a title, more or less significant, and two sides, 
with the items on one side exactly opposite in effect to those on the other ; 
and, like plus and minus quantities, each canceling the other to the extent 
of the lesser side, the preponderance, or excess, of either side being the true 
showing and significance of the account. Thus, the debit or left-hand side 
of the cash account contains the items of cash received ; and the credit or 
right-hand side, the items of cash disbursed; the difference or balance, 
which, if any, must be in favor of the debit side, will be the amount of 
cash 071 hand. Again, the debit of merchandise account contains the 
items of the cost of goods purchased ; and the credit side, the items of 
avails of goods sold, or what the separate sales have produced ; the dif- 
ference or 6«/«nce, when all the facts are shown, being the preponderance 
of production over cost, or of cost overproduction, as the case maybe — in 
other words the net gain or net luss. All transactions which mark the 
progress of the business, having in them the element of gain or loss, must 
occur between the two classes of accounts represented by cash and mer- 
chandise — the one taking cognizance of measuring financial worth, the 
other indicating its increase or diminution. (The mere exchange of one 
fixed value for another, such as the canceling of a personal indebtedness by 
receiving or paying cash, should be called a liquidation rather than a 
transaction ; for although it requires a complete record, the same as the 
buying and selling of goods, it has nothing to do with the progress of the 
business, having in it no element of gain or loss.) The real transactions 
of the business being, therefore, divided between these two classes of 
accounts, we have in the one class — such as merchandise — the in- 
dication or statement of all the separate gains and losses which have 
occurred, and in the other — such as cash — the complete measure of 
the net resources, or real wealth ; the two together establishing the 
satisfactory concurrence of cause and effect, or assertion and proof. Thus, 
the accounts of assertion or cause indicate a net gain or net loss, while 
those of proof or effect show correspondingly increased or diminished net 
worth. 

The peculiar methods or forms of recording business affairs are so va- 
rious — owing to the great variety of manipulation or processes, as also to 



BOTANY ^ 45 

the difference in the estimates of a competent record, that they cannot be 
pointed out. Tlie general conception of the purpose and sphere of book- 
p ^ ^ keeping, however, may be stated as compassing such a record 
fh '^ ^^ affairs as will enable the proprietor to know, at any time, 
/ ? ' ' the extent of his wealth and of what it consists. Of course, 
•'' if the real worth of a business man can be ascertained at any 
time, the increase or diminution between any two periods may readily 
be obtained. 

BOTANY [GiT.ftorav)], herb, plant), the science of vegetable life, treat- 
ing of the elementary composition, structure, habits, functions, and classi- 
Be " it'o ^^^^^^^ ^^ plants, in which are included herbs, shrubs, and trees. 
This is a branch of that general descriptive, or empirical science, 
called natural hii^iort/; being based upon the facts of observation. The 
Educative ^^^^'^^^^^ value of botany, especially in the early stages of the 
value "^i'l'i's development, is very considerable, — far more so, indeed, 
than its usual place in the curriculum of school education would 
indicate ; since it is generally superseded by subjects which seem to be of 
more practical importance to the pupil in his after life. In the more 
modern systems of elementary education, both in this country and in 
Europe, particularly in Germany, the training of the perceptive faculties 
by the systematic observation of objects holds a very prominent place, in- 
deed is considered the basis of all sound mental culture ; and among all 
the objects of nature, none can claim precedence in point of variety, beauty, 
and interest, for this purpose, over those of which botany treats. The 
facility with which plants may be collects 1, handled, and analyzed, as well 
as their general attractiveness, makes them peculiarly well adapted for ob- 
ject teaching. Bugs and beetles are often quite repulsive to a child, but 
where is the girl or boy who is not pleased with the contemplation, or the 
manipulation, of leaves and flowers? 

For the purpose of this kind of instruction, and as an introduction of 

the subject to young minds, the chief point is to direct the attention 

„ of the child to the most obvious characteristics of plants and 

,. , of their parts, as leaves, stems, roots, flowers, seeds, etc. 
* They should be set at once to collect specimens for themselves, 
and be shown how (1) to observe them, (2) how to state and record 
the results of their observations, so that they may acquire a knowledge 
of the words used to express the characteristic peculiarities of different ob- 
jects. Here will be afforded a wide range for the exercise of comparative 
observation, in the perception of both resemblances and differences, but 
particularly the latter. It is not requisite, nay, it would be injurious, to 
teach anything of classification at this stage; nor indeed is it necessary 
that the child should know the name of any plant the whole or part of 
which is under observation. Some prefer to teach the names; since the 
child's mind has a craving for the names of such objects as interest it. 
When, therefore, the name is asked for by the pupil, there can be no ob- 
jection to the teacher's telling it. The observation and description of the 
characteristics are, however, the essential points to be insisted upon. For 
this purpose, no plan can be better than the "Schedule Method," 
method invented by Prof. J. S. Henslow, of Cambridge, England. Ac- 
cording to this method, the pupil starts with an observation of 



46 BOTANY 

the simplest characteristics, as the parts of the leaf — its blade, petioles, 
stipules; its venation, margin, etc. The general appearance of these may- 
be at tirst represented by pictures, but only to enable the learner to study 
the natural objects, which he carefully observes, and writes the characters 
in his schedule, attaching each specimen to it, as a verification to the 
teacher of the accuracy of his observation. (See Youmans's First Book 
of Botany) It wiU be easily seen that by a continuous application of 
this plan, the pupil will acquire a considerable knowledge of the charac- 
teristics of plants, as well as of the nomenclature of the science; and, 
moreover, that at every step his observation, and his judgment too, will 
be thoroughly exercised and trained, in order to be able to describe the 
minute distinctions of form, structure, color, etc., that are subjected to 
his discriminative attention. This process harmonizes entirely with the 
following just view of a distinguished educator: "The first instruction 
of children in the empirical sciences should mainly consist in exhibiting 
to them interesting objects and phenomena; in allowing them to look, 
handle, and ask questions; and in giving opportunity for the free exercise 
of their youthful imaginations. A teacher may guide them in their ex- 
plorations of the neighborhood, direct their observations, make inquiries, 
give explanations, conduct experiments, call things by their right names; 
but he must be careful to do it in such a manner as not to check their play 
of fancy or chill their flow of feeling." (See Wickersham's Methods of 
Instruction.) But the young pupil is not to be kept constantly at mere 
observation, or the comparison of the form, structure, color, etc., of leaves, 
flowers, and other parts of plants; his attention may be called to the simple 
facts of vegetable physiology, and thus shown "how plants grow" and "how 
they behave," as well as what they are. Such information as the circu- 
lation of the sap, its use, the functions of the leaf, the root, the flower, 
. , , and the seed, communicated in an appropriate style and ex- 

. ■ ,. plained by their analogy with other things, familiar to the mind 
'of every child, will properly supplement the knowledge gained 
by the pupil through his own observations. If, after this elementary in- 
struction, it is deemed important that botany should be studied as a 
science, the pupil must be gradually trained in classification, for which 
the foundation will have been laid. In this branch of study, as in all 
other departments of natural history, the mental processes to be suc- 
cessively performed are: (1) Observation, with the view to comparison 
and analysis; (2) Classification; (3) Induction, or the discovery of prin- 
ciples, so as to embody the observed facts intt) a science; and (4) Ap- 
plication of the scientific principles to new facts. The elementary ex- 
ercises already described conduct the pupil through the first stage only; 
but the scientific study does not begin until the third, and is not com- 
pleted till he has become practiced in the fourth. The observation of 
common characters in plants will necessarily lead the mind of the pu- 
pil to perceive the method and the value of classification; but such ex- 
ercises need not be very protracted, since it is natural even to a child 
to generalize and classify. He will soon be prepared for the methodical 
„ . . study of systematic botany ; and then very properly may be 
boia V supplied with a good text-book. But the pupils must only use it 
^' as an auxiliary or instrument, in the study of nature. Let them 



BOYS — BRAIN 47 

still be encouraged to collect specimens, to notice as fully and accurately 
as possible their peculiarities, and to describe them by the proper terms. 
Some simple means of drying and preserving plants will be very serviceable, 
GO that the school at least may possess a tolerably complete herbarium. 

BOYS, Education of. In the education of boys, the same general 
principles are to be applied as in that of girls; and, up to a certain age, 
Ohieds to ^^ ^^^^^^ school education, the same arrangements for discipline 
hekeot in ^"^ instruction will answer. Education, however, rightly con- 

^^J-^ sidered, has for its object to aid and guide the development 
of the powers or faculties, both generic and specific, of the 
individuals who are subjected to its ministrations; and, consequently, 
its processes should vary with the character of the faculties which are 
to be developed. And this is by no means the whole. Education is 
to be addressed to all the elements of character, — physical, mental, and 
moral. There are propensities to restrain and subdue as well as powers to 
bring out and direct. There are tendencies to good to cultivate and en- 
courage; and there are, from the first, those of an opposite character to 
repress or extinguish. There is not only the intelligence to be stimulated 
and guided, there is the will to be subdued, — to be made subject, not only 
to the authority of the educator, but to the conscience of the educated. 
j^. ,. _ Doubtless, there are principles sufficiently comprehensive to 
. . embrace all these considerations, and to afford a safe foundation 

eede^l ^^^ practical methods and rules sufficiently minute to reach 
every case, however peculiar or eccentric; but what we wish 
here especially to lay down, is the important, fundamental law, that edu- 
cation, claiming to be scientific, and not a mere mechanical empiricism, must 
take cognizance of all these elements of human character, not only in their 
average condition and degree, but in those marked diversities which con- 
stitute individual character. (See EducatiOxX.) According to this prin- 
ciple, boys and girls can never properly be subjected to precisely the same 
processes of education, because their natures are very different, — physically, 
mentally, and morally. This fact is, however, not necessarily in conflict 
with co-education; indeed, it may be an argument in favor of it. Children 
of both sexes may be trained in the same family, and instructed in the same 
school or class; but the wise parent and the skillful teacher will often have 
to make a careful discrimination in his treatment of them as boys or girls. 

BRAIN, the principal organ of the nervous system, and the fountain 
of nervous energy to the whole body. It is the seat of consciousness, feeling, 

„„ . and intellect, and also the recipient of all impressions made on 

., 1^, ^f any part of the nervous system. The brain being the organ 
especially concerned in education, its hygiene is an important sub- 
ject for the attention of the teacher. The development of this organ is very 
rapid. The average weight of the brain in adults is about 48 ounces, and 
this limit is generally attained at the age of thirteen years. No organ 
is, from the time of birth, so regularly and so incessantly exercised as the 
J. ^, . brain. During the period of infancy, nature herself superintends 

menf' *^^^ process; and unless her care is interfered with through the 

ignorance, folly, or neglect of the mother or nurse, it results in 

a healthy growth and development. When the age of infancy is passed, 

and the child is surrendered to the educator, intelligence and skill may 



48 BURGHER SCHOOL — BUSINESS COLLEGES 

accomplish much benefit in regulating the cerebral development; or a want 

of skill and intelligence may do, and often does, very great injury. Exercise 

is the natural instrument by which all the bodily organs are brought to a 

maturity of growth and strength, and by which they are kept in 

y^ , a condition of health. In applying this principle, the teacher 
regulated. ^^iouXd see that the exercise be proper, (1) as to its kind, (2) as 
to its degree, (3) as to its direction; and in all these respects, that it is 
adapted to the age and peculiar physical condition of the child to be 
educated. The same process will not answer for all. The teacher who 
wishes to do good, whose aim is really to educate, will study the external 
indications of temperament, of bodily health and disease, and also of 
cerebral structure; and will, as far as possible, regulate his operations 
accordingly. The brain is exercised both by thought and feeling; being the 
seat of various faculties, both mental and moral, its activities are aroused 
by whatever is addressed to the intellect, the conscience, the emotions, 
or the propensities. " 1'he first step," says Combe, '' towards establishing 
the regular exercise of the brain, is to educate and train the mental 
faculties in youth; and the second is to place the individual habitually in 
circumstances demanding the discharge of useful and important duties." 
The healthy development of the brain may be prevented (1) by wrong 
exercise, (2) by being overtasked, (3) by bad physical conditions, (4) by 
bad moral conditions. Overstrained or too long continued attention, 
excessive tasks from books, committed to memory under the pressure of 
fear, long confinement in close rooms, and hence the want of properly 
oxygenated air, will impair the functions of the brain, and lay the 
foundation, not only of future disease, but perhaps of future imbecility. 
So, too, when subjected to harsh discipline, to unkind treatment, to a 
moral atmosphere vitiated by the irritability, ill-humor, and moroseness of 
the parent or teacher, the brain of the child loses even its natural or normal 
physical condition, and its growth is necessarily morbid. (See Physical 
Education.) 

BURGHER SCHOOL (Ger. Bilrgerschule), a name given to many 
public schools of a higher grade in the towns of Germany, designed to 
educate the children of citizens for a practical business life. 

BUSINESS COLLEGES, as distinct institutions, are the outgrowth 
of the past thirty years, although schools and private classes for instruction 
in the commercial branches — particularly book-keeping and penmanship — 
have been in vogue for a much longer time. Formerly, most of this kind 
of instruction was given by a few private teachers in the large cities (who 
generally united the duties of teacher with those of public accountant), 
and by itinerant professors who traveled from place to place, teaching 
special classes for a limited number of lessons at low rates. The utility of 
this practical training was readily apparent, and as a matter of self- 
protection no less than of self-respect, the established schools, public and 
private, were induced to recognize the importance of these useful branches, 
and to supply instruction therein in more liberal measure. There sprung 
up also, in the large cities and villages, schools, making the practical studies 
a specialty, and calling themselves commercial or mercantile colleges. Some 
of them were organized under state charters and authorized to issue 
diplomas in due form. These institutions placed themselves before the 



CALISTHENICS 49 

public as professional schools, assuming the same relations to the future 
business-man as those which already existed between the medical, law, and 
theological schools, and the members of those various professions. See 
Cydopoedia of Education. 



CALISTHENICS (Gr. kuUq beautiful, and c^hoq strength), a sys- 
tem of physical exercises for females, designed to promote strength and 
gracefulness of movement ; or, by assisting the natural and harmonious 
development of the muscular system, to improve the health, and add to the 
beauty of personal appearance. Calisthenic and gymnastic exercises are 
^ , . based on the same principle, — that exercise is essential to the 
^ ^'. ^ proper development of the physical as well as mental faculties, 
^, i and to the maintenance of their healthy condition ; and that, 
in education, it is requisite that suitable exercises should 
be systematically employed. The only difference between calisthenics 
and gymnastics consists in the adaptation of the former to the physical 
education of girls ; and, of course, the exercises employed require a less 
violent muscular action. These exercises may be practiced with or without 
apparatus. The latter, which should be employed first, consist in such 
movements as bring into regular and systematic operation all parts of the 
body. The movements are neither violent nor complicated, being in fact 
only such as are required in the ordinary exercise of the limbs. Their 
p J. advantage over those required in the common active sports of 
ecuAar ^^^^^ consists in their systematic regulation so as to insure an 
equal and regular action of the muscles ; while long continued 
sports of any particular kind, such as trundling the hoop, using the skip- 
ping-rope, etc., have the reverse effect. Calisthenic exercises should, 
rr J however, be so varied as to exhilarate the spirits as well as 

'^"'"^ ' task the muscles, or they will lose much of their beneficial 
effect ; since while the body is exercised, the mind must be interested. 
The simplest apparatus used consists of wands or poles, dumb-bells, back- 
boards, elastic bands with handles, light weights, etc. With such instru- 
ments, a great variety of beneficial, graceful, and interesting exercises can 
be performed ; and when whole classes are exercised simultaneously, there 
will necessarily be a healthful mental excitement mingled with the physical 
training, particularly when the movements are regulated by the rhythm of 
„ ., . music, which is usually the case in modern schools. The utility 

^' of such exercises, when properly and judiciously employed can- 
not be doubted, especially after the age of 1 2 or 14 years, before which 
they should rarely, if ever, be resorted to. Numerous ailments to which 
females are peculiarly liable are due to the neglect of proper physical train- 
ing, and may be prevented or cured by a judicious employment of cal- 
isthenic exercises ; but in resorting to them, certain general rules and 
directions are to be kept steadily in view. They should never be 
P , , practiced immediately after meals, nor very near the time of 
," ,. "■, eating, as digestion cannot be properly performed when the 
io^'J. system is in an exhausted condition. The best time for exercise 
is early in the morning or toward evening. In school, these exercises, 
being of a moderate character, may come after the mind is wearied with 



60 CALISTHENIUM — CATECHETICAL METHOD 

protracted intellectual work, for then they will prove a relief ; but intel- 
lectual efforts cannot effectively be put forth after the physical systeyi has 
become jaded and fatio;uod by protracted exercise. Calisthenic exercises 
should always be commenced and finished gently; indeed all abrupt transi- 
tions from gentle to violent exertions, or the contrary, should be avoided. 
It is by moderate and prolonged or repeated exercise that the physical 
organs are to be developed or improved, not by violent and fitful efforts. 
1 he weaker organs should receive the most attention, so that the whole 
system may receive a harmonious development, 'ihe dress should be light 
and easy ; and the department in which the exercises are taken should be 
spacious, cool, and well-ventilated. All such exercises require to be prac- 
ticed with many precautions and with a due regard to the condition of the 
individual. Teachers may be the means of doing much injury by indis- 
criminately requiring all their pupils to go through the same amount of 
exercise. The effect upon every jupil should be carefully watched ; and, 
iu some cases, the advice of a careful physician should not be dispensed with. 
CALI3THENIUM, a newly coined term, applied to an apartment 
or hall in which calisthenic exercises are practiced. It has been formed 
after the .analogy of qipiDiafiiinn. 

CATECHETICAL METHOD, the method of instruction by 
question and answer, according to which the pupils are required to answer 

J. . the questions of the teacher, so as to show what explanations 
t'ois ' ^^^^^ particularly need in order to obtain a correct knowledge of 
the subject ; or sometimes they commit to memory and recite 
answers to set qut;stions from a textbook. 'J here are but few subjects, 
however, which can be properly taught in this way ; since, in training the 
intellectual faculties, the sequence of facts, thoughts, or ideas, is more im- 
portant than their clear apprehension or expression singly and disconnect- 
Oh^ections ^^^^' ^" *^^^^ principle, there are several objections to the 
^tDV>e ^^^"^t^'^^'^etical method as one of general application: (1) The 

method P^M^^l i^ deprived of a proper exercise of the expressive faculties, 
being required only to repeat what has been enunciated in the 
language of others ; (2) The logical relations of the facts learned are apt 
to bj unnoticed by the pupils, from the absence of those intermediate con- 
nective worJs and phrases by which ordinarily those relations are indicated; 
(3) The pupil, by learning merely the answer to a question, fails to obtain 
a full idea of the truth, a part of which, and sometimes the most essential 
part, is expressed in the question itself. Thus, if a pupil is asked, ^Vhnt 
is an Maud? and he answers, Laiid surrouvdcd hy wf.tcT, he does not 
entirely express the fact, but only a disjointed fragment of it. Many text- 
books constructed on the catechetical plan are liable to this objection ; 
others, however, obviate it by invariably making the answer a complete 
statement, the gist of the question being repeated. Thus, the answer of 
the question, W/mt ?s an ishnul? would be, An idand isi I and surrounded 
h>/ water. When the catechetical method is employed in giving oral in- 
struction, the teacher should be careful to kee[) this principle in view. A 
skillful use of this method will always be found effective in opening 
How made ^? *^ ^'^^ mind of the pupil the fundamental ideas and prin- 

e^ective. ^^?}^^ ^^ ^ subject previous to its formal study by the pupil him- 

''••- ' * self, or, v,-hca di^culties ari^e, in leading the pupils mind, by 



Catechism — CBtARACTEn hi 

an adroit series of interrogatories, to such an analysis of the statement or 
problem in question as will enable him to apprehend the elementary facts 
or principles involved, and thus to solve the difficulty without further aid. 
This, however, is not so much an application of the catechetical method as 
a skillful use of interrogation, one of the most valuable and indispensable 
means of imparting information. (See Ixterrogation.) 

The catechetical method was formerly very popular in schools, and 
almost universally employed; but, in proportion as mechanical methods 

^. of recitation and rote-teaching gave place to such as appealed 

abandoned ^^^^'^^^Y *^ ^^^^ pupil's intelligence and powers of expression 
■ the mere question-and-answer system of instruction became, 
discredited and was abandoned. In its place, the topical method is now in 
quite general use. This requires that the pupil shall give a connected 
statement, not simply as an answer to a question, but as logically expressing 
the knowledge which he has acquired in regard to the topic assigned by 
the teacher. 

CATECHISM (Gr. Kar-qxi-oiioc, instruction), an elementary work 
containing a summary of principles, especially of religious doctrine, reduced 
to the form of questions and answers. The name catechism for a religious 
work of this kind was probably first proposed by Luther, whose two 
famous catechisms appeared in 1529. The use of catechisms in formal 
religious instruction is very general, the object being not only to present 
to children, ia the most lucid form, the tenets of the religious communion 
of which they are expected to become active members in after life, but to 
impress these doctrines indelibly upon their minds. 

CATECHUMEN (Gr. Kar-nxovixtvoq, instructed by word of mouth), 
the name given, in the early Christian church, to a convert who was 
receiving catechetical instruction preparatory to baptism. I'he catechumens 
were divided into different grades or classes according to the degree of their 
proficiency, only those of the highest grade, who had been pronounced fit 
for baptism, being permitted to be present at the administration of the 
Lord's Supper. This appellation was afterward given to the younger 
members of any Christian church who were undergoing instruction to 
prepare them for the rite of confirmation, or for the Communion, in which 
sense the term is still used. 

CHARACTER, Discernment of. The perception of the peculiarities 
of individual character by its external manifestations constitutes an essential 
Its imvori- V^^^^^^^^^^Y to all sound and judicious educational treatment. 
ancein ' '^'''^^^^ ^^ ^'^ endless diversity in the natural inclinations and 
education ^^V^^^^^^'^ ^^ children; and, therefore, no system of education can 
claim to be scientific that fails to recognize this fact, and to 
supply (1) the principles and rules that should guide the educator in 
discerning these individual peculiarities, and (2) the practical methods 
of treatment best adapted to each. Generally, however, education is carried 
on with but little or no such discriminations; pupils, whatever may be their 
Nealectof t^'^psrament, physical condition, state of health, mental capaci- 
ties, or moral proclivities, are treated according to the same 
system or plan. It is true, there is in every mind a kind of instinctive 
perception of the peculiarities of character, either the result of an inex- 
plicable impression or prejudice, formed with little observation, or a positive 



52 OHART 



1 

less! 

rpnf, T 



I 



judgment derived almost unconsciously from an attention, more or 
superficial, to the person's appearance, actions, and words on different 
occasions. A systematic study of the external indications of character has 
not, however, been generally, or usually, enjoined upon the teacher as a 
preparation for the work of training and instruction. Nevertheless, the 
most distinguished educators have fully recognized the principle. "Let 
him that is skilled in teaching," says Quintilian, " ascertain first of all when 
a boy is entrusted to him, his ability and disposition." 

vVhen children are educated at home by private teachers, and, indeed, 
always in that part of education which belongs to the family or home 
circle, there is a wide scope for such discrinjination; but when large masses 11 
of children are taught together, as in public schools, a discrimination off 
individual traits, and a corresponding adaptation of method 

asis oj ^^^^ requirement becomes, except within quite narrow limits, 
c assifica- JQ^pj-aQj^icj^^i^ig. gtiH, it has been questioned whether, in the 
organization of such schools, the classification of the children 
should not be based upon other considerations than merely their apparent 
proficiency in a few elementary branches of study. If to secure these! 
intellectual acquirements be the exclusive end of the teaching to be given, ■ 
the usual classification is, of course, proper; but. even then, it should be 
constantly corrected according as individual capacity unfolds itself. Some 
^ pupils will make much more rapid progress than others; and if 

.on qn u- ^j^^g^ ^^^ ^e^t back in order that the general or average progress 

a 'I' it ^^ ^^^^ ^^^^^ ™^y^ ^^ brought up to a given standard, their future 
^ ' progress will be greatly obstructed; their mental activity and 

elasticity will be impaired by the want of due exercise; and their interest 
in study will be more or less extinguished. Moreover, not finding the 
natural craving of their minds for exercise gratified, their sensuous nature 
will be unduly developed, and they will be inclined to plunge into frivolous 
and idle amusements. In large schools, conducted almost entirely without 
any of the discrimination here referred to, the individual is sacrificed to ■ 
the mass; and many a bright youth loses not only the best hours of his life, p 
but, by untoward habits and a want of due training, the very spring of his 
intellectual nature. The moral influence of such indiscriminate treatment 
is still worse; since there is nothing that requires so delicate and careful a ■ 
consideration as the proper methods of guiding, controlling, and training ■ 
the dispositions of children. 

CHART (Gr. x^P'VC^ Lat. charia, a leaf of paper), a large sheet 
generally of pasteboard, containing a synoptical exhibit of letters, words, 
colors, plants, etc., to be used in giving instruction, particularly to classes. 
This is a very useful piece of school apparatus, since by means of 

- .... it the eye is addressed, and large numbers of pupils may be 
sun y. ^Q^^^ simultaneously: while the teacher is relieved from the 
trouble of writing out or drawing on the blackboard what is to be 
presented. In teaching color by object lessons, a chart is indispensable, 
as it exhibits, in a methodical way, the objects themselves. Several excel- 
lent charts for this purpose have been constructed. Charts are also very 
useful in teaching phonics. In higher instruction, there are many subjects 
in which the use of charts affords an important means of illustration; and, 
hencej we find in school rooms charts of botany, physiology, chemistry, 






CHEMISTRY 53 

astronomy, etc. While the rapid sketching of an illustration on the black- 
board has many advantages for certain kinds of illustration and teaching, 
the more accurate delineation of objects by charts is often to be preferred, 
and, therefore, no school room can be completely furnished without sets of 
these articles. 

CHEMISTRY, although one of the youngest branches of physical 
science in its development, is one of the most important from an edu- 
cational point of view. But the attention may be so readily 
.f ^' arrested by its many easily recognized points of contact with the 
ca zona individual and society, in its numberless applications in the 
va ue. household, the shop, the farm, etc., as well as in the industrial 
processes on a grander scale, that any value it may possess, as a purely dis- 
ciplinary agent, may be overlooked, even by teachers of it, and it may be 
regarded too much, simply as a low utilitarian element in an educational 
course, however valuable it may be admitted to be. It is, nevertheless, 
true that, in recent years, much that had contributed a peculiar attractive- 
ness to chemistry as a branch of instruction, seemed inextricably involved 
in discussion. The perspicuity of its nomenclature, the precision of its 
statements, the simplicity and comparatively limited number of the laws 
involved in its most complex phenomena, were all apparently affected. 
But it has at last emerged from this formative condition, so changed to be 
sure, that many well educated in chemistry a few years ago may be obliged 
to recast their knowledge in new moulds, but with a system of philosophy 
which has much clearer and more comprehensive generalizations. It has, 
moreover, lost nothing of its peculiar character as perhaps the most sharply 
defined branch of physical science. The changes have not been so much 
those of abandonment of views formerly held, as of their expansion, to 
provide for the wonderful accumulation of facts since the science first took 
form about the beginning of the century. The old nomenclature survives 
only in a few general principles. The names, being out of accord with 
established and accepted facts, were too precise, and expressed too much. 

In teaching chemistry, three methods readily suggest themselves: (1) By 
text-books; (2) By lectures, accompanied by experiments; and (3) By ex- 
-periments or investigations performed by the pupil. These 
Methods of ^^^^^j^^^g ^pq ^q different in themselves and in the end to be ac- 
eac ^"17 ^ • ^Qj^pjigl^g(j^ ^h^^ they cannot be compared as to effectiveness; 
but they so fully supplement each other, that they should as far as possible 
be employed together. The tendency, at the present time, is to under- 
value the text-book. Whilst there can be no doubt that, by itself, it yields 
the least return for the time, attention, and drudgery of both teacher and 
pupil, as an adjunct to either of the other methods, it not only imparts 
fullness to the knowledge, but also renders it more precise. Another inci- 
dental advantage of the highest character consists in a certain facility for 
reference, which its study imparts; and, in many cases, an ability to make 
use of the literature of the science, and, by means of it, to study up a sub- 
ject, or investigate a particular case, may be of far more value than a 
memory thoroughly crammed with facts. 

Lectures accompanied by illustrative experiments are^ generally con- 
ceded to be valuable, and to some extent indispensable, aids in teaching 
physical science. Text-book study, however faithful and earnest, must be 



54 CHEMISTRY 

supplemented by them. The facts formulated in words must be vitalized, 
and re-enforced by their objective reproduction. Presented thus directly 

_ , to the senses, they not only become more intelligible, but possess 
a peculiar charm, that impresses them vpon the memory, and 
renders the whole study more profitable, as well as more attractive. But 
lectures are more particularly adapted to teach the general principles of 
the science, and to develop to its fullest extent the disciplinary value of 
the mode of reasoning employed in the investigation of the truths of nature, 
and also to cultivate the faculty of observation. They are, how^ever, not at 
all adapted to displace the text-book. 'J hey are feeble in teaching details. 
Simple statement and re-statement, and illustration combined, will not im- 
press these upon the memory. If the pupil be required to take full notes, 
or indeed be allowed to take any notes at all, it will be at the loss of much 
that is peculiarly valuable in such lectures. AVith tbe faculty of obser\'a- 
tion in the pupil generally untrained, any division of attention between 
writing, and listening, and observing will greatly reduce the proper effect 
of the lecture. Great pains should be taken to arrange the matter, and 
bring it before the pupil so that the salient points may impress themselves 
upon the memory; and the lecture should be filled in from memory after- 
w^ard, or it may be a still better plan, in many cases, to furnish, on the 
blackboard, a very brief syllabus of the lecture. But much of the effect- 
iveness of a lecture is lost in attempting even incidentally to teach numer- 
ous details by means of it. It cannot be expected, nor is it at all necessary, 
to reproduce all. or indeed a very large proportion, of the facts and proces- 
ses of the text-book, in order that it may be fully comprehended. There 
are many facts and processes in chemistry that possess a typical character, 
aiding directly in the comprehension of many others, and these are the ones 
most likely to be drawn upon by the lecturer. Ihere is no branch of physical 
science that admits of a fuller illustration and verification of its facts with 
comparatively limited and inexj^ensive apparatus, nor any in which the want 
of thorough practical knowledge and skill on the part of the experimenter is 
productive of less damage to the apparatus employed. Up to a very recent 
date, simple entertainment and amusement have been regarded, almost 
equally with instruction, as the objects of such lectures. Ihe most sensa- 
tional experiments that the science and the means at command 
a ".^^/^^" could afford, were impressed into service ; and these, too, often 

p men s. j^Qg^iy connected, or arranged in the order of the text-book. 
There is still unfortunately a residuum of expectaticm of something of this 
kind. The apparatus and experiments with it are apt to be made the dis- 
play features of the instruction. Whilst simple entertainment, or even 
anuisement, may sometimes legitimately accompany lectures on chemistry, 
it should be only as a natural incident; and even then, should not occur 
too often, since it is apt to create an expectation of, if not a desire for, 
such features; and this will seriously divert the attention of the pupils 
from the line of thought which should always connect the experiments. 
Every experiment should come upon the scene like a well-trained servant, 
just at the right point of time to add its proper effect to the total effect of 
the lecture ; and, in no case, should it control the lecturer. An experi- 
ment without such a subordinate relation is as much out of place as a 
wor4 without proper connection in a discourse. As tbe te^t-book i^ 



I 



CHEMISTRY 55 

largely a compendium of details, its somewhat arbitrary plan of arrange- 
ment, and its formal, systematic, didactic treatment must give way to the 
Topical ^^^^^ instructive, as well as more attractive, Baconian method of 
method insinuating knowledge into the mind of the pupil in the manner 
in which it was c.iscovered. Topics should be taken up, dis- 
cussed, and illustrated. The most familiar phenomena should be noticed, 
and the lecturer should place himself, with his appliances, in the position 
of an investigator, — an interrogator of nature, and an interpreter of her 
rei)lie3. The point of attack, and the line of investigation should be care- 
fully determined upon and wrought out, so as to evoke the most valuable 
information, and exhibit the logic of facts inductively employed. The 
pupil will readily follow the investigator in his alternate inductions and 
djductions, as he "guesses and checks his guesses." He will thus not only 
learn the subject, but acquire, in a measure, the attitude of mind by which 
facts are discovered, julgei, and arranged, and by which also they may be 
lllusiratiDTi *^^'^'^-^ ^^ practical account. To take a very simple case : car- 
■ bonic acid being selected as the subject, a burning candle may 
suffiee to start the inquiry which will lead up to it, and f^r beyond it. 
Then, out of the numerous questions that suggest themselves, the chemist 
might ask whether, as the material of th.3 candle evidently undergoes a radi- 
cal change, the air surrounding it is affected ? It is placed in a jar, and 
covered; it goes out. Is the air changed ? Test wiih lime-water. Yes. 
Will a splinter change it in the same way? Try. Yes. It is then allow- 
able to guess that all burning bodies affect the air in the same way. The 
guess may be cheeked by employing a wax taper ; then an oildamp ; then 
a gas jet. The inference then becomes the very plausible hypothesis, that 
burning bodies invariably affect the air surrounding them in such a way, 
that it will render lime-water turbid. All would be satisfied to stop at 
this conclusion ; but a jet of burning hydrogen is at hand, and on repeated 
trials, each time with greater care, it fails to give the result predicted from 
the hypothesis. The many facts only led up to that degree of certainty ; 
the one diseordant fact shakes the whole fabric. 'I'he case is now looked 
at anew. What have these bodies in common so as to produce this 
identical result in burning, which hydrogen has not ? Carbon. A piece 
of charcoal is tried. It confirms the conjecture which led to the experi- 
ment with it. More cautiously than before, the hypothesis would then be 
modified to suit the new fact, — bodies containing carbon in burning modify 
the atmosphere in a certain way. From this point, all the leading proper- 
ties of carbonic acid could be developed, with but little more apparatus 
than may be found in any household : its specific gravity, by pouring it 
from ordinary pitchers, or running it off by means of a syphon, by weigh- 
ing it in a paper bag on ordinary scales, etc. ; its solubility in water, and 
the solvent properties it imparts to the water, by passing it through lime- 
water, until the precipitate is re-dissolved, then re precipitating it by boil- 
ing the solution, etc. The other constituents of the atmosphere are, in a 
similar way, readily brought within the range of inquiry. Such a moda 

„„ of treatment has for the pupils all the freshness of an original 

1 ^ . investigation. It arouses a spirit of inquiry, and quickens ob- 
eth d servation ; since they will be far more apt to observe closely 

^ ° ' when they are to discover what is to be seen, than if required 



56 CHRIST CROSS ROW 

simply to see what is described. There \dll, moreover, be a pleasing sur- 
prise at the evolution of clear general principles from apparently confused 
inquiries. In such lectures, a S3nsational experiment without a direct 
bearing upon the subject, would be entirely out of place. Humble and ap- 
parently trifling experiments are frequently found to present the truth in 
its simplest, clearest, most intelligible form. In all cases the chemical 
^ . notation should be freely employed. All reactions should be 
No a ion expressed by symbols upon the blackboard. One fact, how- 
to he used. ^ i i / i x- Si i x • • j • • i 

ever, should be continually kept in mind in arranging such a 

lecture, and bringing the phenomena before the pupils ; namely, that in 
pupils of all ages, without any previous training in this direction, the 
power of observation is generally exceedingly feeble, and that they can fol- 
low the lecturer but slowly. They are very apt to overlook or mistake the 
feature to be observed, or to be misled by some unavoidably prominent 
accessory. An examination upon a lecture of the simplest character will 
reveal this fact. The most salient points, even, will often be found to be 
--, ,. wanting. A great part of the value of the illustrations of scien- 
^^^' hi *^^° lectures in our higher institutions, and of the highly elabo- 
fh^^'i ^d / rated popular lectures is lost for the same reason. This dithculty 
may be remedied in a great measure by adding the other method 
of teaching suggested ; that is, by allowing the pupil, under the direction 
of the teacher, to perform the experiments and conduct the investigation, 
requiring him to keep accurate notes, and, in some cases, to reproduce the 
results in the form of a lecture. Chemistry is peculiarly adapted to this 
mode of instruction. A few test-tubes, flasks, corks, etc., and very little 
material will put it into the power of the pupil to reproduce the expla- 
nation of many facts. He will learn more by a few failures than by a whole 
series of experiments s iccessfully exhibited in a lecture, and will realize 
how much of care and painstaking accuracy must be expended in the prep- 
aration of every successful experiment. He will appreciate the importance 
of the most trifling essential condition, and will find that here no over- 
sights, no mistakes, no negligence can be condoned; but that failure follows 
them as inexorably as effect follows cause. He will be surprised to find 
how apparently trifling an oversight often lay between him and success, 
and will learn to estimate conditions by other standards than their ap- 
parent magnitude or importance. He will thus form the habit of observ- 
ing closely, and of noticing every thing exhibited in the course of lectures, 
and will carry this habit into all the affairs of life. — See Daubeny (Prof. 
Charles G. B.), On ike Stmly of Oiemistry as a Bi^anch of Education, in 
Lectures on Education (London 1855). 

CHRIST CROSS ROW, orCriss Cross Row, a familiar designation 
formerly applied to the first line, or row, of the alphabet, as arranged in 
the ol 1 horn-books, or primers. In these books, which consisted of only 
a single page, the letters were printed in the following manner : 
+ Aa b c d e fghijklmnopqrfstuvwxyzetc 
aeiouABCDEFGHIJKLMNOPQRSTUY 
W X Y Z. 

The first line commencing with a cross was called the Christ cross row, 
or briefly the ci'oss row. 



CHRONOLOGY — CLASS 57 

CHRONOLOGY. See History. 

CLASS (Lat. classis, from Gr. K?idaic, from KalsiVf to call, because 
applied to an assembly of the people when called together) , a number of 
Definition P^P^^^ ^^ students in a school or college, of the same grade of 
•^^ ' attainments, receiving the same instruction, and pursuing the 
same studies. When large numbers of pupils are to be taught, a careful 
distribution of them into classes becomes requisite; indeed, nothing is so 
important, previous to the work of instruction, as an accurate classification. 
Heterogeneous masses of children cannot be instructed simultaneously. 
They may be made to perform mechanically certain school exercises, — 
■XT ^ f Daay, perhaps, be taught to read, to spell, to write, and to cipher 
,^^ .^ to some extent; but it can only be by rote, without the due 
^ ^- exercise of their intelligence, and, hence, without proper mental 

development. A poorly classified school can never be really 
efiicient, whatever talent in teaching may be brought to bear upon it. There 
is no doubt that individual teaching has many advantages over the teaching 
of classes; since there is a better opportunity to observe the pupils' peculiar 
traits of character, and to adapt the instruction to them; but class teaching 
approximates to individual teaching in proportion as the classification is so 
accurate as to bring together under the influence of the teacher pupils of 
a like grade of attainments, and of similar disposition, temperament, and 
mental constitution. Such a degree of accuracy in classification is ordinarily 
impossible; but this is the ideal standard to which the teacher must al- 
ways endeavor to approximate in organizing the classes of his school, 
or he cannot anticipate success. 

A proper limit as to the size of classes should be carefully observed. 

This is difficult to fix by the statement of any particular number, since 

„. , the number of pupils that may be properly placed under the 

'26 0/ instruction of a single teacher will vary with the age and char- 

acter of the pupils, the evenness of the grade, and the skill and 
experience of the teacher himself. When the number is between 50 and 
100, or over, as it sometimes is in large city schools, of course no proper 
result can be effected. "In a large class," says Reid [Principles of 
Eliicaiion), "each of whom seldom, and at best only for a short time, 
receives individually any attention from the teacher, the progress is slow, 
^. . . the faculties little developed, and the education altogether very 

imperfect." The danger inseparably connected with the in- 

discriminate treatment of pujnls of different characteristics has 
^* been often referred to by experienced educators. Thus, we find 
in a work designed to aid practical teachers, the following important 
admonitions: " In every class, however well graded, the pupils will differ 
much in age, health, mental capacity, and home advantages. A correct 
and judicious classification will reduce this inequality to a minimum; but 
there will still remain a wide field for the exercise of discrimination, care, 
and caution on the part of the class-teacher. The lessons should, in all 
respects, be adapted to the average ability of the pupils of the class; but, 
even beyond this, some allowance will often have to be made in the case of 
pupils of quite inferior mental capacity or opportunities for home studies;" 
and further, " Teachers are especially admonished to be considerate toward 
pupils of a delicate constitution, an over-excitable brain and nervous system^ 



58 CLASS 

or in temporary ill health. ]SIany children of this class are precocious in 
mental actvity and exceedingly ambitious to excel; and the greatest care 
is required to prevent them from injuring themselves by an inordinate 
devotion to books and study." (See Hmo to Teach, N. Y., 1873.) The 
comparative advantages and disadvantages of home (individual) in- 
struction, and school (class) instruction are quite fully discussed in 
Isaac Taylors Home Edncaiion. "A principal and necessary 
Home and (jjg^^jj^ction," he" remarks, "between the two systems is this, 
school in- ^j^^^^ -vvhile, in the one, all methods of instruction and modes 
sti-acnon. ^^ training are or may be, with more or less exactness, adapted 
to the faculties, tastes, and probable destination of the pupils singly, 
and may be accommodated to the individual ability of each; in the 
other system, that is to say at school, it is the mass of minds only, or 
some few general classes, at the best, that can be thought of — And 
yet even this undistinguishing mechanism, which is proper to a school, 
and which carries all before it with a sort of blind force, is in itself, in 
some respects, a good ; and if some are the victims of it, to others it may 
be beneficial. There are children who are not to be advanced at all, except 
by the means of a mechanical momentum; and such might well be sent 
from home to school, on this sole account, that they will then be carried 

round on the irresistible v/heel-work of school order But although in 

a large school, even when broken up into classes, little regard can equitably 
be paid to individual peculiarities of faculty or taste, the principle which 
is characteristic of home education, may readily be extended to schools not 
much exceeding the bounds of a numerous family. In fact, it is only the 
personal ability of the teacher, his tact, his intelligence, and his assiduity, 
that can fix the limits within which the principle of adaptation may be 
made to take effect. " 'I'he number of pupils that should be placed in a 
class is, therefore, a matter requiring the utmost exercise of good judgment, 
taking cognizance of all attending circumstances. 

AVhat should constitute the basis of classification is also a matter 
requiring a careful consideration. The several grades of the course of study 
„ . J. should, of course, be exactly defined, and all the subjects, or parts 
(^isis oj ^^ subiects, prescribed, should be carefully adjusted, so that the 
'. *^ various requirements of the grade may be accomplished simul- 
taneously, and a due proficiency in each may constitute the baFis 
of distribut'on or promotion at every reorganization of the classes. Still, 
let the adjustment be as nice as practicable, some diversity will be found 
at the end of each period of instruction. One pupil, for example, will have 
made good progress in arithmetic, but very little in reading, writing, 
grammar, etc. What, then, is to be done? If the average progress is 
taken, pupils of such unequal attainments in particular studies may be 
brought together, that the teacher will find it impossible to give instruction 
to one portion of the class without neglecting the other, or will be obliged 
to divide his class into sub-grades, and thus sacrifice much time in attending 
to each separately. This difficulty is often, measurably, obviated by selecting 
some one branch of instruction, as arithmetic, and basing the classification 
upon the pupils' attainments in this subject, working constantly thereafter 
to bring the pupils, as far as may be necessary, up to the same standard in 
other subjects. 



CLASSICAL STUDIES 59 

Wliether a school is best taught by classes or by subjects, is a question 
that has received much attention from educators; that is to say, ^vhethe^ 
„ ^ , each teacher shall instruct a particular class in all the branches 

',■. ■ of study which the pupils are required to pursue; or whether 

"^ * each class shall be taught in succession by several teachers, each 
one taking a particular subject or class of subjects. The diversity of at- 
tainments, mental tastes, and special skill among teachers, would seem to 
dictate the subject system rather than the class system; since, were certain 
branches assigned as a specialty to each teacher, there would be more time 
for the careful study by the teacher, not only of the branches themselves, 
but of the proper methods of teaching them; and, of course, better work 
woul 1 necessarily be done. Other considerations, however, seem partially 
or wholly to neutralize this apparent advantage. The success of a teacher, 
especially of young pupils, depends upon his thorough knowledge of their 
disposition, and also upon their familiarity with his ch racteristics; and 
this knowledge ib would be difficult to acquire if the teacher were required 
to spend but a short time with each class, and his means of acquiring it 
were distributed over a number of classes. Some educators, however, take 
a view directly opposed to this. "If the pupil," says \Vickersham, "recite 
always to the same teacher, he may become familiar with certain lines of 
thought, but he will most likely be confined to them. He might be trained 
by a more unvaried discipline, but it is a discipline in one direction. He 
becomes imbued with his teacher's peculiar opi nions, acquires iiis man- 
ners, and is apt to create a little world in which his teacher is the reigning 
sovereign and himself the most conspicuous citizen of the realm. It is much 
better for all pupils to have different teachers, with different tastes, talents, 
and opinions; but it is very important that this should be the case with 
advanced pupils." Nevertheless, it has generally been found that much 
better discipline, — a firmer control, prevails in schools conducted under 
the class-teaching plan than in those taught on the subject or departmental 
system; and, consequently, the former is the prevalent mode of organiza- 
tion in large public schools. In district or private schools consisting of 
but few pupils, and in institutions of a higher grade, as high schools, col- 
leges, and universities, the other system is invariably, and of course neces- 
sarily, employed. 

Instead of requiring all the members of a class to study the same 
branches, some schools are so organized that pupils recite different studies 
. in different classes. This method has sometimes been denomi- 
.^' ,. " n^tel a loose classificrithn. It encourages unequal attainments, 
^ ' ' the pupil being stimulated to do his best in each study without 
any regard to his jDrorress in other studies. This is, of course, a great dis- 
advantage. Besides, it requires a constant change of classes in the working 
of the school, and, consequently, makes the discipline more difficult. "I 
i recommend," says "Wickcrsham [School Economi/), "a close classification, 
with such departures from it as overruling circumstances mav make expe- 
dient." — See Wells, Graded Schools (N. Y., 1862); Wickersham, 
SJiool Economy (Phil., 1864); Isaac Tailor, Home Ediicntion (London 
and X. Y., 1836); Baldwix, Art of School 31 mnqement (N. Y., 1881). 

CLASSICAL STUDIES, a term denoting the study of the Latin 
and Greek lanpruajres and literatures. The word classical is derived from 



60 CLASSICAL STUDIES 

the Latin word classicus, that is, relating to the classes of the Roman 
people, especially to the first class. The best authors known to the 
Romans, both Latin and Greek, were rat^id as classici, that is, 
Meaning ^ ^j^^ ^^.^^ class, or clasHcs. The expression is sometimes used to 
*^ , designate the standard authors of any nation, but it is chiefly ap- 

^* plied, as it was originally, to the standard Latin and Greek writers. 
The method of teaching and studying the classical languages and litera- 
tures must, of course, vary according to the object or purpose for which 
^ ,. , they are taught or studied. In some schools, the study of 
ff^/f these languages (particularly Latin) has been adopted for the 
oj eac .ing ^^^^ ^^ chief purpose of showing their relation to the English 
an say. Iq^j^^^^q ^^^^j Qf giving a clear insight into the meaning ot En- 
glish words derived from them. Where this is the exclusive object, a com- 
paratively small amount of time will be found sufficient for this study. 
In classical schools, colleges, gymnasia, etc., classical studies are generally 
pursued for the purpose of cultivating and developing the mental faculties, 
and introducing the student to the literary treasures of which they are the 
keys. It is obviously of the greatest importance, that the teacher should 
be fully conscious of the precise aim that is to be attained, and that the 
pupils themselves should, as soon as possible, be made to understand the 
(2 fl f objects and advantages of the study. The first reading exercises 
. ^^ ^^..^ will, of course, serve chiefly to familiarize the pupil with the 
'grammatical rules; but, as soon as he understands the peculiar 
structure of the language, the teacher should strive to unveil, as much as 
possible, what is beautiful and excellent in the classic authors selected for 
study. Both translation and explanation should aim not only at increas- 
ing a knowledge of the vocabulary and the grammar, but at the training of 
the mind to comprehend, to appreciate, and to admire these beauties and 
excellencias. The finer parts of a classic author will, of course, require the 
greatest and most concentrated attention of the pupil; and, therefore, the 
greatest possible exclusion of mere grammatical explanations. It is evident 
that none but teachers of the best skill and attainments are competent to 
give this kind of instruction. The college graduate who has just com- 
pleted his course, however well he may have been taught, cannot be ex- 
pected to make the impression, and accomplish the success, by his teaching, 
which can spring only from a professor of ripe scholarship, cultivated taste, 
and experience in giving instruction. There is no doubt that classical 
studies have suffered in repute as the agencies of a higher education, by 
the mechanical methods employed by teachers. The letter, and not the 
spirit, has been taught; and the consequence has been, that the perusal of 
the sublimest masterpieces of ancient history, oratory, and poetry has com- 
monly degenerated into the study of petty grammatical subtleties, only 
puzzling the mind of the student without informing or elevating it. Next 
Te ih k ^^ importance to the employment of competent teachers, is the 
* selection of proper text-books,, in order to produce the best 
results in this department of instruction. The books at first needed by 
every pupil are a grammar, a dictionary, and books for translation. The 
grammars and dictionaries used should be those specially prepared for 
pupils; for the wants of pupils are different from those of teachers and 
scholars. As regards the editions of classic authors, some teachers prefer 



CO-EDU CATION — COLOR 61 

texts with notes, others those without notes In the former case, the notes 
should be exclusiyely calculated to promote the pupils knowledge of the 
language and a clear understanding of the writer's meaning. The use of 
^ translations is generally discouraged by teachers, though all know 

^" that "ponies" are great favorites with students. There are some 

^""^' educators who regard a judicious use of translations as not only 
not hurtful, but commendable. AV'hen a knowledge not only of the classic 
language but also of its literature is desired, the use of the entire work of 
an author is preferable to that of selections, such as are found in reading- 
books. An introduction, giving the pupil information in regard to the 
author of the work, facilitates a correct understanding of the work itself, 
and increases the pupil's interest. Geographical and historical explanations 
should be given wherever they are needed. 'J he translations should be at 
first literal, but should, invariably, be converted into good linglish, and 
should reproduce, as much as possible, the excellencies, as well as interpret 
the meaning, of the original. Of course, the pupil should not be discour- 
aged by too harsh and minute a criticism of his efforts. Minor faults 
should, at first, be passed over, and the pupils mind gradually trained to 
facility, accuracy, and elegance of expression. — See Bain, Education as a 
Science (N. Y., 1881). 

CO-EDUCATION" of tlie Sexes, a term used to denote the system 
of educating males and females together, that is, in the same institution, 
school, or class, and by means of the same studies and methods, pupils of 
each sex receiving the same school training and culture. See Cyclopcedia 
of Education, and Year-Book of Education. 

COLLEGE (Latin collegium, originally meaning any kind of asso- 
ciation) is a name given to large classes of educational institutions, espe- 
cially in the Uniced States, England, and E ranee. The academic use of 
the word college began about the beginning of the 13th century, and orig- 
inated in the following manner. The students who flocked to the uni- 
versity towns often came into collision with the citizens, and frequent 
brawls resulted. In order to protect the public peace, as well as to watch 
over the students, lodging-houses were provided in which the students were 
under the charge of a superior. These houses were called colleges; and 
this name was afterwards applied to any academic institution of a certain 
grade, whether connected with a university or not. Colleges appear to 
have been first established in Paris; and soon afterward in Oxford and 
Cambridge, in Bologna and Padua, and in Prague and Vienna. They 
were richly endowed by popes and other dignitaries of the church, princes, 
and powerful families; and, in some of the university towns just named, 
they became so numerous in the 15th century, that almost every student 
of the university was a member of some one of the colleges. 

COLOR, as a branch of object instruction, is of great interest and 
value; since, at an early age, children take particular notice of colors, and, 
.,. . hence, lessons upon this subject furnish an excellent opportunity 
Uluity of j^^ training them to distinguish resemblances and differences, 
lessons in. ^^^^ ^^^ en'couraging the formation of those habits of attention 
and comparison which are necessary to the successful study of other sub' 
jects. From the fact that many persons are found to be color-blind, it la 
of great importance that suitable lessons should be given children to enable 



62 COLOR 

teachers and parents to ascertain whether this defect exists in any under 
their care, before they become old enough to engage in any occupation in 
which color-blindness would be an insurmountable defect. Besides, by the 
early training of children to observe colors, much of the inability to dis- 
tinguish them, which is commonly not discovered until later in life, may 
be overcome by education. Furthermore, a general knowledge of colors, 
and of their relations to each other, is of importance in ntarly every avo- 
cation of life. This becomes especially ajDparent when it is remembered 
how much depends upon color in the manufacture of materials for dress, 
furniture, household decorations, in the work of artists, and in various 
other kinds of employment. 

Since a knowledge of color can be gained only through the sense of 
sight, the methods for teaching it in school should be so arranged that the 
pupils may have abundant exercise of this sense in distinguishing 
^ ^° ■ colors. For the first lessons, place before the pupils the best 
colors that can be procured, in order that they may obtain correct concep- 
tions as to what are good reds, yellows, bbiei^, greens^ purples, etc. Com- 
mence with showing a single color, as red, and leading the pupils to 
compare red cards, paper, silk, worsted, etc., with it, and thus to notice 
resemblances and differences between the true red and the several objects 
compared with it. Give similar exercises, with each of the primary and 
secondary colors, singly; then place two of these colors before the pupils, 
and let them select articles to match each of the given colors. Proceed in 
a similar way with the other colors; and, finally, place several or all of 
them before the pupils at the same time, and require them not only to 
point out the colors as named, but to select colored articles to match each. 
Frequent changes in the mode of giving these exercises on color will 
increase the interest of the children in the subject, and add to their knowl- 
„ . edge of it, especially when each one has something to do in the 

'^^^f^ exercise. After the pupils have learned to know each of the 
exeicises. ^.^ colors used in the previous lesson, fresh interest may be given 
to the subject by supplying each child with a piece of colored paper, tak- 
ing care that those who sit side by side shall, as far as possible, hold dif- 
ferent colors. When the papers have been distributed, the teacher may 
say, " Now, look at your paper, see what color you have, then fold your 
arms so as to hide your paper. Now, look at the color which I show you ; 
all who know that they have a like color may hold it up. — Eight. — Now, 
look at this color, — all who have one like it, hold it up." Proceed in the 
same manner with each color; — to close the lesson, request one pupil to 
collect all the red papers, another all the blues, another the greens, etc. 
Similar lessons may be given for the purpose of teaching children to 
distinguish shades of colors, as dark and light reds, blues, greens, etc. 

If it be desired to continue these lessons, and teach that the six colors , 
previously shown may be divided into two groups — primary and secondary 11 

. _ — procure artist's paints : red (carmine), yellow (chrome), blue I 
j:'iimm\) ^^^i^ramarine); also a small palette, and a palette knife. Place f| 

^"\ a little yellow and blue on the palette, side by side, requesting 

J . the pupils to notice what colors are used, 'i'hen, with the knife. 

mix these two colors together until qreen appears in j)lace of 

the yellow and blue. Then ask the pupils what color has been pioJuced 



COMMENCEMENT — COMPANIONSHIP 63 

by mixing the yellow and the blue. Proceed in a similar manner to mix red 
and blue! to produce purple ; red and yellow, to produce orange. The 
teacher may now write on the blackboard for the pupils to learn : Mixing 
yellow and blue will produce green. Mixing red and blue will produce 
purple. Mixing red and yellow will produce orange. Then pupils may 
select the two primary colors that will produce given secondaries, also the 
secondary th it may be made from two given primaries. Show the pupils 
also that light and dark colors may be formed by mixing white or black 
with other ^colors. Provide exercises by which the pupils may do some- 
thing to indicate that they know each fact taught. 

fn order that children may understand harmony of colors, they must 
be led to observe that to produce harmony, the three primary colors must 
be grouped together; that if two of them exist in a given 
Harmony ^^qq^^^-^^yy , the other primary will harmonize with that seconda; y. 
of colors, r^^ accomplish this result by teaching, arrange colored paper, or 
other material, so that red and gre3n, yellow and purple, blue and orange, 
pale green and violet, maybe compared, and the sensation noticed. Request 
the pupils to tell what colors are compared in each instance ; also whether 
the three primaries exist in each group ; as well as to observe that the 
colors of these groups harmonize. Next, compare red and orange, blue and 
green, yellow and green, requiring the pupils to observe the etf ect on the 
sense of sight ; also to state which primaries exist in each group, and to 
notice that" the colors of these groups do not harmonize. These lessons 
will be more or less usef al in proportion to the amount of exercise which 
the pupils have in distinguishing and comparing colors, and in observing 
their relations. (See Senses.) 

CO]y[iyEEN"CEi\IE^r denotes, in the United States, the occasion on 
which degrees are conferred by colleges and universities upon their gradu- 
ates. ThTs takes place in June or July, and closes the scholastic year, so 
that the name in this respect appears to be a misnomer. It refers, however 
to the beginning of the student's independent career after being released 
from tutelage. The life of school ends, but the school of life commences. 
COaHVEON" SCHOOLS, the name given in the United States to 
schools maintained at the puplic expense, and open to all. These schools 
are public elementary schools, although the common-school system of any 
state or city often includes schools of several grades, as primary, grammar, 
and high schools, besides normal schools for the special instruction and 
training of teachers. Common schools in the rural districts are called 
districTszhools, being under the supervision and control of the officers of 
the school district. For the history and description of the common-school 
system of each State in the Union see Cyclopcedia of Education. 

COMPANION'SHIF, as one of the necessary conditions of a child's 

life, is an important elenient in education; indeed, the influence of a child's 

companions, either for good or evil, is often far greater than 

Wliyan ^^^ ^^^^^ can be exerted by parents or teachers. The social 

irnportani ^^^^^^^ q£ ^ ^.^jl^ i^ stronger than that of an adult; and, 

element. ^j^gj,gfQpg^ ^o educate it by itself, excluding it from all intercourse 

with children of its own age, would result not in a natural or normal 

development, but in a kind of monstrous distortion. The selfish principles 

of its nature would attain a disproportionate growth and strength; and it 



64 COMPOSITION 

could have neither sympathy nor self-control. Hence, companionship is 
necessary for several reasons: (1) To develop the social sympathies and 
affections of the child; (2) To cultivate properly its moral nature; (3) To 
bring into play its intellectual activities, and to accustom it to their ready 
exercise. Besides, without suitable and congenial playmates, it would not 
be properly or sufficiently stimulated to bodily exercise, and its physical 
growth and development would be incomplete. 

Companionship, therefore, being indispensable, it is of the greatest 
importance that it should be of the right character. It is particularly true 

„ of children, that " evil communications corrupt good manners," 

"^/^^ and not only manners, but morals; indeed, the society of the 

* debased will inevitably undermine the whole character, leaving 

it but an example of incorrigible depravity. Nevertheless, a youth nmst 

gradually be accustomed to the exercise of considerable freedom in selecting 

his or her associates, since the circumstances of after life will necessitate 

this independeace of choice. The great desideratum is, that the child's 

mind should be so impressed with right principles, that it will avoid the 

companionship of those whose conduct and language it perceives to be 

vicious. 'I'here is, however, always need of great vigilance in order to 

prevent corrupting companionship, even when the greatest care has been 

p . , exercised in the previous moral training of a youth; for the 

stronger will must always control the weaker will, when brought 

. , . ' together, and children learn much faster from each other than 
^ from their elders. To influence a young person, so as to form 
his character in a particular direction, or fully to control his actions, it 
is requisite to cultivate a certain degree of companionship with him. 
Parents who pursue this course, — fathers making companions of their 
sons, and mothers, of their daughters, are the most successful in establish- 
ing the character of their children. To a limited extent, the same principle 
may be applied in school education. The austere teacher who never strives 
fy to cultivate any other relation between himself and his pupil 

^ ^. ' than that of authority, will never exert any considerable influence 
theteale- ^^'^"^ ^^'^ moral character; while, on the other hand, he who is 
' easy and familiar, who cultivates the friendship, esteem, and 
confidence of his pupil, will find the latter always glad to be his companion, 
and will be able to control his conduct to an almost unlimited extent. 

COMPOSITION, as the formal expression of thought, and as a 
branch of school exercise, has usually been confined to that which is writ- 
Del iti ^^^^ ' ^^^ ^^ some the signification of the term has been so ex- 

'' ' tended as to embrace also the oral use of language in the ex- 

pression of a logically connected series of ideas. Thus, it has been said 
that ''oral composition may be cultivated from a very early period, indeed 
from the beginning of the pupil's school education; and whatever degree 
of facility he attains in it will secure his more rapid advancement when he 
enters on the study of written composition;" Avhich is undoubtedly true. 
At the same time, as nothing is gained by extending the application of a 
term beyond the limits of ordinary usage, it would seem best to restrict 
the word coviposition to the written expression of thought; more especially 
as this requires a somewhat diverse training from that which is needed in 
oral discourse. Of course, the habit of using language correctly in all the 



COMPOSITION 65 

oral school exercises, as well as in ordinary conversation, is not only useful 
but essential as an antecedent preparation for written composition; and in 
Use of "^^^^^^^ ^^^^^' ^^ ^^ important that pupils should be accustomed, in 
, ■^ all their recitations, to be accurate in expression and not only 

^ ^ * to use the proper forms of words, but to construct complete 
sentences, instead of such fragmentary phrases as are very often made use 
of in answer to the questions of the teacher. Moreover, in all recitations 
which do not absolutely require a verbatim repetition of the language of 
the text-book, the pupil should be accustomed to use his own language as 
far as possible, thus drawing upon the resources of his own vocabulary, and 
his constructive power in expression. But all this is only auxiliary to 
„ . written composition, which requires special and peculiar exer- 
cises, beginning almost as sooii as the pupil has learned to 
write simple words and sentences; indeed, rudimental exercises in ccmpo- 
sition may constitute an essential part of object lessons, the teacher writing 
on the blackboard instead of requiring the pupils to write on the slate or 
on paper. For example, in the description of an object, the pupils observe 
and state each quality successively, and the teacher writes each separate 
statement on the blackboard, observing strictly the rules for punctuation 
and the use of capitals; and then the pupils are required to put the whole 
into a connected statement, which the teacher also writes on the black- 
board. Thus, suppose the object is a piece of glass. Ihe pupils say, and 
the teacher writes. Glass is hard. Glass is solid. Glass is brittle. Glass 
is transparent. Then the whole is formed into a connected statement; and 
the teacher writes, Glass is hard, solid, brittle, and transpareid. Such 
simple exercises are susceptible of a very great variety, and, consequently, 
may be made to afford a great deal of valuable training both in thought 
and language. Reading also may be made available in training pupils in 
the ready and correct use of language, by requiring them constantly to 
reproduce, in their own modes of expression, the substance of the lessons 
read; and, as soon as they have learned to write with suflBcient fluency, to 
set down on paper, or on the slate, portions of these statements, ji^kin to 
this kind of exercise, is the reading of simple narratives by the teacher, 
and requiring the pupils to give the substance of them in their own 
language. 

In all these cases, the pupils are trained chiefly in the use of 

words and the construction of sentences; but the teaching of com- 

„ ,. position requires, (1) a cultivation of thought: ard (2) a culti- 

leac ing ^^^^q^ ^^ ^^^ faculty of expression, thought implies ideas 

composi- ^^^ ^j^^.^ logical arrangement according to certain laws of as- 

^°^* sociation. The mind must recall all that it has learned upon the 

subject under consideration, — ideas, facts, propositions, opinions, etc., 

and arrange them into a symmetrical whole. To do this well requires 

not only maturity of mental culture, but much practice in the use 

of language, filling the memory not only with a vocabulary of words, but a 

large accumulation of phrases, and other forms of expression, associated reg- 

,y,... ularly with certain recurrent ideas. The difiiculty experienced 

Hn ing ^^ pupUg in ^Titing compositions is proverbial; and to a consid- 

composi' g^^i^ig extent, it is to be hoped, obsolete; since modern methods 

• of instruction have gone far toward eradicating many of the 



66 COMPOSITION 

absurd educational practices of by-gone times, one of which was to require 
young pupils to write formal compositions upon difficult abstract themes 
without any. or with very inadequate, preliminary preparation and train- 
ing. The necessity of such training is now pretty generally recognized, and 
suitable graded exercises are employed; such as the following: (i) Conver- 
sations upon familiar objects, such as usually engage the attention of 
children; (2) Sentence-making, in various forms, and affording practice in 
the application of grammatical rules; (3) Formal descriptions of objects; 
(4) Simple narratives; (5) Didactic essays, graduated from the simplest 
composition upon such subjects as a horse, a coio,afloicer, &c.,up to those 
upon complex abstract themes; (6) Argumentative compositions, in which 
the principles and rules of logic and rhetoric may find an application and 
illustration. Each of these classified forms of exercise needs much con- 
tinuous practice; and the pupil should not be required to write mis- 
cellaneous compositions until he has been successively trained in those of 
the first four classes, and haa acquired a fair degree of readiness at each 
stage of his progress. 

In all the exercises, however, of whatever grade or kind, it is very 

essential that the pupil should, as much as possible, be induced to make 

q J . , use of his own experience in selecting subjects for compositions 

;ec s ^pj|-[jjg Qf what he has himself seen and heard, and using the 
jor com- gii^^pieg^ and most direct language he can command. Meregram- 
" matical exercises are of little use in teaching composition; per- 
haps, they are rather a hindrance, since the exclusive attention to the con- 
struction of sentences without regard to their meaning or logical coherence, 
tends to the formation of habits that are directly opposed to success in ac- 
tual composition. The great point is to accustom the pupils, by constant 
daily practice, to the free expression of their thoughts in ^yriting. Let 
them have something to say, and then require them to write it in the most 
natural way, employing their own modes of thinking and of using language, 
and thus, in the course of time, developing a style; since style is only the 
peculiar impress of a writer's individuality upon his forms of expression. 
Paraphrases and translations, however, afford a very valuable kind of exer- 
cise in composition; but should not be employed except in the more ad- 
vanced stages of the instruction, since to reproduce exactly the thought of 
a foreign writer requires a gre it command of language. 

In the correction of compositions, the teacher should exercise great 
prudence, so as to impart the kind and degree of instruction adapted to 
^ .. the pupil's progress; and, at the same time, not discourage his 
■ efforts by too minute criticism. If a class is under instruction, 
the prevailing errors of the pupils, as discerned on a perusal of the compo- 
sitions, will suggest certain topics on which instruction is needed; and this 
may then be illustrated by examples culled from the compositions without 
referring to them individually. Especially should the teacher avoid hold- 
ing up any of the pupils' efforts to ridicule or severe rebuke, unless the in- 
accuracies are such as result from sheer carelessness. A pupil's whole in- 
tellectual carecT may be vitinted by an imprudence of this kind; since, in 
general, there is nothing in respect to which persons, whether adults or 
children, are so sensitive as in regard to their efforts in written com- 
position, 



II 



CONCENTRIC CIRCLES — CONCEPTION 67 

When the compositions have been carefully read, and the errors 
pointed out by suitable marks, the pupils should be required to transcribe 
Transcrip- *^''^"^' ^^ ^^'^^ ^^^^7 ^^y ^^ presented for further revision. Ihe 

tion. ^t^^^y ^^ grammar and composition should be pursued together 
in the early stages, and rhetoric aud composition in the later. 

CONCENTRIC CIKCLES, System of. Among the new methods 
of instruction which have recently been extensively employed in schools, 
that of teaching on what has been called Concentric Cira'es deserves to be 
specially mentioned. According to this method, a subject which is to be 
taught in several grades or classes, is not distributed into a number 
of consecutive sections of which the lowest class studies the first, the 
following the next, and so on, until the last section is reached by the high- 
est class; but the most elementary points — forming an outline — are 
selected for the lowest class; and in the following class or classes, this part 
of the work is reviewed, and the review is combined with additional selec- 
tions still covering the entire extent of the subject, but with greater 
detail, until, in a number of such concentric circles, the informa- 
tion of the scholars is extended to the limit which the course of study 
prescribes. 

In Germany, this plan has been quite extensively adopted in the teach- 
ing of history, geography, natural science, and language, as well as in 
arithmethic (see Developing Method). See Year-Buuk of Educuiion 
for 1878. 

CONCEPTION, or the Conceptive Faculty, the facidty of the 
mind which retains past perceptions, and forms from them general ideas, 
DpH it' °^ notions, sometimes called concepts. In this manner, the 
^ * individual impressions obtained by perception are associated 

In the mind, according to their resemblances and analogies, and become 
the materials of thought ; for without general ideas thought is im- 
JJ1 f f possible. Thus, the child perceives a horse, but the concept 
"in its mind as the result of the perception, is not of that 
particular horse, which it will remember to have seen at a particular time 
and place, but of the horse as one of a class of animals resembling the 
one seen ; and to each one of this class it is at once prepared to apply 
the name Jiorse. As, if you ask a child. How many legs has a horse? 
he answers,/b?«' ; because such is his concept or notion of a horse, formed 
from all the perceptions which he has had of this animal. " Nature," 
says Isaac Taylor, " for purposes which it is not very difficult to divine, 
has allowed an absolute predominance to the conceptive faculty during 
the season of infancy, and has granted it a principal share in the mental 
^ . economy during the succeeding years of childhood." Hence, 

oncepwn^^ is with this faculty that early education has principally to 
*'* ^ ^7 * <ieal. At this period, the mind is to be stored with ideas — 
images, or mental pictures of past perceptions, which it is to 
employ as the material for the exercise of the other faculties, — imagination, 
judgment, reason. "A rich and ready conception," says Currie, "is the 
soil out of which grows a sound judgment. The cause of error in our judg- 
ments lies as frequently in the want of materials on which to base them as 
on the want of power to compare them when required." He also judi- 
ciously remarks, " It is a great mist9,ke to hasten on the child to nse the 



68 CONCEPTION 

forms of judgment before his mind is stored with the materials to which to 
apply them, under the impression that we are teaching him to think." The 
^. faculty of conception is most active in relation to the objects of 

Visible sight, that is, the perceptions derived from that sense give rise to 
objects. ^^^ strongest or most vivid conceptions; hence, indeed, the 
word idea, meaning image or picture in the mind. To those who are 
deprived of the sense of sight, the perceptions produced by the sense of 
hearing stimulate, perhaps, with almost equal force the conceptive faculty. 
' ' The furniture of the conceptive faculty, as derived from the objects of 
sight," says Isaac Taylor, " constitutes the principal wealth of the mind, and 
upon the ready command of these treasures, with some specific end in view, 

. depends in great measure its power." The cultivation of this 
GuUwation ^^^^^^ should aim, (1) To give clear, definite ideas of objects 
and con- ^^^ ^j^^.^, properties; (2) To imprint them deeply upon the 
ception. ^^^^^ gQ ^Yist.t they may be permanently retained, and readily re- 
called ; and (3) To associate them, as far as possible, according to their 
intrinsic or logical relations. It is a well-understood fact that the clearest 
and deepest conceptions are obtained by a close and accurate observation 
of the objects from which they are derived. Clearness and strength of per- 
ception are followed by the same qualities in conception. Hence the 
value of object teaching, the best results of which are the effects produced 
upon the conceptive faculty. In training the perception, we are. indeed, 
training the conception ; and it is the latter process that is especially valu- 
able, not the former. This training can only be carried on by means of 
language. No idea can be fixed in the mind to be of any prac- 
Language. ^^^^^ value, unless there is linked with it its proper verbal desig- 
nation. Words as well as ideas are the elements of thought. A large part 
of elementary teaching consists in analyzing the parts and properties of 
objects, and, after leading the mind to form concepts of them through 
sense-perception, applying to them the names by which they are commonly 
known. As examples of lessons of this kind, the following are given from 
Currie's Early and Infant School Education: 

TREE. 
Place — in the ground, in fields, gardens, etc. 

Form — upright, bending, wide-spreading above, with waving motion, etc, 
Pakts — Root, iDelow ground, branching, etc. 

Trunk: round, solid, pillar-like, firm, dark, rough, knotty, etc. 

Leaves: heart-shaped, oval, etc.; soft, green, yellow, etc. 

Blossom and fruit in their seasons. 
Sound (in mollon) — rustling, gentle, violent, etc. 

GLASS. 

Color — light, stained, clear, transparent, obscured, etc. ) c,--7,y 

J'OKM (in wwdoiosj— square, round, oval, lozenge-shaped, etc. ) " " * 
Thin, light, hard, brittle, cold, sharp, etc. Touch. 

SEA. 
Taste — salt, unpleasant, cold, etc. Taste. 

Size— large, broad, deep, etc. | 

Color— green, blue, clear, sandy, etc. \ Sight. 

Form— Surface: plain, wavy, billowy, foaming, etc. ) 
Sound (in inotiou.) — dashing, murmuring, gentle, violent, etc. Hearing. 
cool, refreshing, cold, etc. • Touch. 

Such lessons admit of an endless variety, and may be either entirely 
objective,, that is, given with the objects placed before the pupils, or purely 



CONCERT TEACHING 69 

conceptive: such as those above on the tree and sea. Both kinds, however, 
have the same primary object in view, — to train the conceptive faculty in 
connection with expression. Observation is also greatly stimulated and 
guided by such lessons. Thus, to take so familiar an object as the sky, of 
which every child must necessarily have a multitude of conceptions, 
although perhaps indetinite and almost useless, because not associated with 
any names. How much would his real available knowledge be increased 
by an exercise enabling him to enumerate the various appearances of the 
sky by proper designations. Thus: — The Sky may be serene, stm-my, 
clear, overcast, misty, hazy, foggy, gloomy, loweinng, bright, resplendent, 
hrilliaiit, deep, dull, brazen, red, gray, azure, starry, dark, lurid, etc., etc. 
In a similar manner, the sensible properties of a great variety of familiar 
objects may be recalled and named, and in this way the attention of the 
pupils to minute characteristics may be cultivated, and their command of 
language much increased. 

The conceptions of the mind are greatly influenced by the feelings. An 

indifferent, apathetic mental mood will effectually preclude the formation 

J ^ of any deep or durable impressions; on the contrary, the con- 

ofihe ^^Pt^o'^s ^^ objects and scenes with which the mind has been 

Feelings, ^^^ought into contact under circumstances causing deep emotion, 

either of pleasure or pain, are ineffaceable. " The cherished 

and imperishable recollections of childhood, often as bright and clear at 

eighty as they were at twenty, are those treasures of the conceptive faculty 

which have been consigned to its keeping under the influence of vivid 

pleasurable emotions." There is no principle which the teacher should 

more earnestly consider than this, prompting- as it does to the effort to 

associate with the scenes of the child's school life every possible object 

which may excite its interest, awaken its delight, and lend a charm to its 

intellectual acquirements. — See Isaac Taylok, Home Education; Currie, 

Early and Infant School Education. 

CONCERT TEACHING, a mode of instruction in which the pupils 

memorize what is to be learned, by simultaneous repetition. It is thus 

a kind of rote-teaching, and is subject to all the disadvantages and 

j^ . .. . liable to all the objections incident to that system. In large 

* schools, in which very many pupils are taught together in a single 

class, this has been a common and favorite practice with teachers; because 

it has been found a ready way to fix in the memory of children the 

rudimentary principles of reading, spelling, arithmetic, etc., and to impart 

, to the pupils the ability to repeat, in answer to set questions, 

^ ^ what has been thus mechanically learned. The arbitrary associa- 

^ ' tions established in this way are very strong and durable; and, 

as some things are to be taught arbitrarily, and others to be associated in 

the mind so that they may be arbitrarily suggested, that is, recalled without 

any effort of reasoning or other mental process, the method of concert 

repetition, has a place in teaching that is useful and important. For 

example, the multiplication table would be of little value if it were so 

learned, that the pupil would require to reason out, or reckon up, the 

result of each required combination; the associations must be of such a 

character, that thought is unnecessary to recall them, the process of simple 

suggestion being alone required. Hence, in memorizing such things as 



% Concert teachikg 

arithmetical tables, grammatical declensions, conjugations, etc., concert 
teaching is valuable, on the principles, (I) that all repetition is valuable in 
order to impress the mind; and ('2) that, the sense of hearing being strongly 
appealed to, the mental impressions and their associations are more durable, 
and more easily recalled. Besides, by such exercises, the young pupils are 
constantly employed; their minds are kept steadily upon their school work, 
and a strong social or collective sympathy is established, which would not 
be possible by the exclusive employment of individual exercises. In this 
connection, Currie says, " By this oft repeated simultaneousness of thought, 
action, and emotion, the mass becomes welded together, takes on one stamp, 
breathes one spirit .... Such is the foundation of that simultaneous action 
with which, under the name of collective les.'^ons or fjallerij lessons, we are 
so familiar in the infant school." So strongly is this writer impressed with 
its usefulness, that he styles it " the very essence of the infant-school system, 
springing immediately from the root of it, and embodying a first principle 
of its existence." 

The exercise of intelligence is, however, to be considered the chief 
instrument of education; and this is so much an individual matter, that 
_ . . the limits withm which concert or simultaneous repetition is 
x-imi s pyQpgp^ Q^Q quite narrow; and the tendency with most teachers 
J I sus , -^ ^^ transcend them. Consequently, the intelligence of many 
pupils, instead of being properly addressed and exercised, is kept in a kind 
of stagnant condition, and is thus impaired rather than benefited. The 
teacher, in giving simultaneous instruction, must endeavor to prevent this. 
The pupils will have different temperaments and different degrees of mental 
power; and, consequently, cannot all perform the same work. The questions, 
when addressed to the whole class, will not be adapted to all the pupils; 
and if the teacher should depend upon a mere simultaneous response, 
only a part of the class would be benefited by the teaching. A show of 
hands is a ready and useful tentative means of ascertaining the condition 
of the class in this respect; and thus the advantages of the simultaneous 
and individual plan of teaching may be 'combined, the teacher selecting 
from all who raise their hands those who are to answer, and, at the 
same time, observing carefully who do not raise their hands. Then, 
when the teacher wishes a certain answer to be repeated for the pur- 
pose of impressing it upon the pupils' minds, the class may be required 
to repeat it as often as may be necessary in concert. Tact and skill on 
the part of the teacher will make this method of elementary instruction 
very effective. 

In the simultaneous responses, the tones of the voice should be as natural 
as possible. Without great care on the part of the teacher, concert exercises 
rj, J, are very apt to degenerate into a sing-song monotonous drawl, 
.'^'^ . '' which undermines or prevents all proper habits of reading and 
e voic . gpgg^i^jfjg fpijQ pupils, too, are very apt to pitch their voices too 
high, or to use a kind of shouting tone, which no intelligent teacher would, 
for a moment, permit. Under the limitations referred to, and with all 
proper efforts to guard against the abuses to which this system of teachhig 
is peculiarly liable, it is of great value; but should never be employed, 
except when the common nature and common intelligence of the children 
are to be brought into play. 



CONSCIENCE n 

CONSCIENCE, Culture of. The feeling of moral obligation, the 
conviction that certain actions are right and others wrong, the sense of 
Definition ^^.^^J^'^^^^.^oral principle, or by whatever other phrase of similar 

•^ ' * signification we may define conscience, is the most important 

object of culture in every department and stage of moral education. The 

strength of this principle, as an active element of character, differs greatly 

_ - in different individuals, whether children or adults. As a gen- 

a^U^-it I ^^^^ ^^*^^' ^o^'^'^^^^' children are influenced but very slightly by a 

^ ^ ^* sense of right or duty; they are acted upon by a different class 
of motives. 'J he desire of sensuous enjoyment, the love of approbation, 
emulation, self-will, the hope of reward, and the fear of punishment, are 
the usual means by which youthful minds are swayed, and their actions 
controlled. The appetites are strong; the moral sentiments, weak. Hence, 
TT f T to address the conscience of a child as a ruling principle would 
develoved ^^ ^ great error; perhaps, a disaster. Still, children should be 
* treated as possessing at least the germ of conscience; and they 
should early be habituated to scan their own conduct as well as that 
of others, and apply to it a certain standard of moral rectitude. How- 
ever imperfect this standard in a child's mind may be, much will be gained 
when we have induced him to ask, in regard to any of his actions, "Is it 
right?" The enlightenment of conscience is much easier than its develop- 
ment; to one who is deeply impressed with a sense of duty, a knowledge 
of specific right and wrong will be very readily acquired. It should be 
borne in mind that, while the child is really restrained by the lower m.o- 
tives of conduct, such as those above enumerated, the conscience is to be 
steadily but carefully addressed. Thus, if a pupil, whose love of approba- 
tion is strong, has learned a difficult lesson simply to please his teacher, it 
is right to accord him all the praise which he craves as the reward of his 
conduct; but let not the teacher fail to impress upon his mind, at the same 
time, that this praise is given because the action performed is good — is 
right; so that his mind may be drawn from his overweening desire for the 
approbation of others, and gradually led to appreciate more highly the ap- 
probation of his own conscience; and so in respect to all the lower incen- 
tives. If the child is punished for a fault by an angry teacher or parent, 
he will rather dread the anger than be impressed with the wrongfulness of 
his conduct; and, if sly and deceitful, the only result of the punishment 
will be to render him more careful to conceal than to avoid similar wrong- 
doing in the future. Hence, the interposition of the teacher's personality 
in connection with either reward or punishment is an obstacle to the moral 
improvement of the pupil; because it diverts his attention from the charac- 
ter of his conduct, as good or bad in itself, to an exclusive consideration of 
its effects upon the mind of the teacher, as producing praise or censure. 
Some thoughtless teachers punish their pupils for not telling of each 
other's offenses; when they should be glad to perceive an exhibition of such 
a sense of honor, and should rather encourage and commend it. Of course, 
if a pupil who is strenuous in his refusal to act the part of a tale-bearer, 
as being mean and wrong, could be convinced that his duty demanded 
that he should make known the wrong-doer, he would at once yield; but, 
after a simple statement of the case, he should be permitted to exercise his 
conscience, without any violence or threats being brought against it. A 



72 CONVERSATIONAL METHOD 

high standard of moral excellence in a child is just as striking an in- 
stance of precocity, as great intellectual power and attainments; and is, 
. perhaps, as much to be discouraged. "Be content," says Herbert 
Precocity. v^p^Q^gp^ "with moderate measures and moderate results. Con- 
stantly bear in mind the fact that a higher morality, like a higher intelli- 
gence, must be reached by a slow growth; and you will then have more 
patience with those imperfections of nature which your child hourly 
displays." 

The conscience is not to be cultivated by simply giving moral precepts. 
"Moral education," says Dymond, "should be directed, not so much to in- 
_ - forming the young what they ought to do, as to inducing those 

Value of jjjQj.g^^ dispositions and principles which will make them ad- 
'^^^^ here to what they know to be right." The highest success in 
precepts. ^^^.^ .^ achieved when the pupil is seen to be willing to make 
self-sacrifice, to practice self-denial, in order to do what he feels to be 
right. This point of moral excellence having been reached, the in- 
dividual may, with entire safety, be allowed to control his own actions, 
with the assurance that he will not, in any circumstance of life, go far 
astray. 

The basis of moral rectitude has not here been considered; nor is it 
necessary to plunge into any speculations as to what constitutes that dis- 
„ . , criminative power between right and wrong which is a part of 
Basis of ^^^^ original constitution of the human mind. It may undoubtedly 
moraA y. ^^ strengthened by religious training of a proper character; 
and hence, such training constitutes a very important agency in the culture 
of the conscience. "Parents," says Hartley, "should labor, from the earliest 
dawnings of understanding and desire, to check the growing- obstinacy of 
the will, curb all sallies of passion, impress the deepest, most amiable, rev- 
erential, and awful sentiments of God, a future state, and all sacred 
things." (See Moral Education, and Religious Education.) 

CONVERSATIONAL METHOD. This refers to the mode of 
giving instruction, in which the lessons, instead of being formal recitations, 
exercises, explanations, or lectures, consist of a familiar discourse by the 
teacher, interspersed with questions or remarks by the pupils; that is to 
say, in which the lessons partake of the character of conversations, both as 
to the manner of presenting the subject and the style of language employed. 
This mode of teaching is especially adapted to young children, because it 
affords the teacher a constant opportunity to appeal to their intelligence 
and experience, and to employ the simplest colloquial expressions. Be- 
sides, the utmost freedom being given to the pupils, they are enabled 
to show by their questions and remarks to what extent and in what 
respect they need special instruction and information. In order to arouse 
and sustain the pupils' interest, their attention is called to such facts 
in connection with the subject as, although quite obvious when shown 
or explained, are usually overlooked by children, who are generally but 
superficial observers before being trained to close attention and careful 
investigation. In object teaching, the lessons should always be conver- 
sational, the teacher saying only enough to lead the pupils to observe, 
and to talk freely about what they notice. 

CORPORAL PUNISHMENT. See Punishment. 



COURSE OF INSTRUCTION YS 

COURSE OF INSTRUCTION, or Course of Study, is a series of 

subjects of instruction or study, arranged in the order in which they should 

T) a -f ^^ pursued, and grouped or divided into grades, each to be 

d*c?°'- ^^"^P^*^^^^ ^^ ^ certain time. Such an arrangement of studies 

iqnaiion's \^ sometimes called a graded course, and, especially in superior 

■ instruction, a curriculum. "When these various subjects are 

arranged in the form of a daily order of exercises, showing the tinie, or the 

number of lessons, to be given to each subject, it constitutes the school 

programme. 

In order that the objects of intellectual education may be fully attained; 
it is of the greatest importance that the course of instruction should be 
Be mire- ^}^^^^^^^^ "^ respect to several points : (1) The selection of sub- 
ments J^^^^5 (2) Their order or arrangement; (3) The number pre- 
scribed for simultaneous study ; (4) The division of the course 
into grades, with a definite time assigned for the completion of each. 1 he 
first of these considerations is of paramount importance; since the subjects 
of study constitute not only the basis of intellectual culture, but the source 
of necessary information. Two points, consequently, are to be 
j^^^^^^^.^_ considered in this selection: (I) The value of the subjects as 
ered means of culture; (2) Their importance as sources of infor- 
mation. In the early stages of education, the first of these con- 
siderations should, without doubt, have the preference ; but, as education 
advances, the second claims an increasing degree of attention, until, in the 
sphere of technical and professional education, it becomes almost the ex- 
clusive aim. We cannot, therefore, decide upon a course of instruction, 
wathout considering the nature of the mind to be educated as well as the 
objects forAvhich it is to be educated. In elementary or primary education, 
Grouvina *^® necessary subjects of instruction may be grouped into the 
of subjects ^<^Uowing : (1) Language, including reading and elocution, spell- 
' ing, the analysis and definition of words, grammar, and compo- 
sition ; (2) Rudimentary Mathematics, including arithmetic, mental and 
written, algebra, and geometry ; (3) Elementary Science, or a knowledge 
of things, graded from the simple perceptive facts of object instruction up 
to the rudiments of geography, natural history, physiology, physics, astron- 
omy, etc.; (4) History; (.5) Graphics, — writing, drawing, etc.; (6) Ath- 
letics, — gymnastics or calisthenics. To these may be added music, vocal 
or instrumental, which constitutes a part of esthetics. In addition to these 
branches of study, in some cases, the rudiments of a foreign language are 
also taught. The distinction between primary and secondary instruciion 
not being definitely fixed as to subjects, some of those mentioned above 
may be deemed exclusively appropriate to the higher grade. For proper 
mental discipline, there must, however, be instruction in things as well as 
words, — the perceptive and conceptive faculties must be trained as well as 
the expressive faculties, so that the mind maybe stored with ideas and their 
■r, . representatives in language. A proper discrimination between 

-. ^ primary and secondary instruction depends upon (1) the kind 
, . " of instruction, and (2) the subjects of instruction. Science 
■ ^ .. taught in the high school is a very different thing from science 
in the primary school ; in the one case we address to a much 
greater extent the higher faculties, — abstraction, generalization, reasoning, 



74 COURSE OF INSTRUCTION^ 

etc.; in the other, chiefly the perceptive and conceptive faculties. The 
subjects of elementary instruction have been classified by an eminent 
educator as follows ; *'(!) Reading cmd Writing — the mastery of letters ; 
(2) Arithmetic — the mastery of numbers ; (3) Geography — the mastery 
over place ; (4) Grammar — the mastery over the word ; (5) History — • 
the mastery over time." 

In schools of secondary instruction (high schools, academies, etc.), the 
course includes also language — the vernacular, and one or more modern 
jr. , languages, and also the rudiments of Latin and Greek, particularly 

^, in preparatory schools ; mathematics, including algebra, geom- 

etry, trigonometry, mensuration, etc.; science (taught as such), 
including physics and chemistry, astronomy (descriptive, at least), physiol- 
ogy, etc.; to which are usually added English literature, rhetoric, the 
elements of meutal and moral philosophy, etc. What properly belongs to 
a high school or academic course is, however, far from being settled ; in- 
deed, to fix the line of demarcation between primary and secondary in- 
struction has scarcely been attempted ; hence, what should constitute the 
course of study in schools of this grade is an open question, which is usually 
determined by the circumstances and special aim of the school. Thus, the 
course for a business college, for example, is very different from that of a 
collegiate or preparatory school. The theory of the common-school system 
in the United States requires that the pupil should enter the high school 
with a good knowledge of the studies already mentioned ; — at least, read- 
ing, writing, arithmetic, geography, English grammar, and the history of 
the United States ; but it is a great error to suppose that these subjects 
can be fully mastered by an immature mind. " Until all educators," says 
a thoughtful teacher, " shall agree as to the precise culture power of each 
study, as weU as to the exact value of its imparted information, and shall 
determine, to the satisfaction of all, what particular faculties each calls into 
activity, and just how the calling into action of these faculties educates a 
man, it will be impossible to establish a course of study which all shall 
acknowledge as absolutely the best." 

The division of the course of instruction into grades is sometimes 

made by topics, and sometimes by text-books; and each method has its 

. , advocates. The former, it is claimed, gives more freedom to 

'^^^ r the teacher — more scope for the exercise of intelligent discrim- 
^ 'ination and original treatment; the instruction proceeds to 

a greater extent from the living teacher, since there is less inducement to 
confine it to a mere hearing of recitations. The subject is the paramount 
consideration; the text-book, the secondary. The teacher, and the pupil also 
as far as possible, is required to consult various books, to compare their 
statements, to correct their errors; and thus, wdiile perhaps a particular 
text-book is used as a basis for the instruction, a more general knowledge 
of the subject is imparted than is contained in any single work. Thus, if 
the study is the history of the United States, to one grade is assigned the 
Colonial History; to another, the period of the devolution and the 
Establishment of the Federal Governmeyit, etc.; while, if the division were 
by book, it would be necessary that all the schools should use the same, 
and a certain number of pages would be assigned to each grade. For 
absolute uniformity, of course, the second plan is preferable; but some 



I 



CRAMMING TS 

educators claim that uniformity may be carried too far, constituting a 
Procrustean standard, and tending to deprive the instruction of one of 
rp • 1 its most essential qualities, — its adaptability to different 
^ minds. Evidently the topical system makes more demands upon 

^ * the teacher; and this, it is claimed, constitutes its great 
advantage, since it necessitates better information, higher culture, and 
more real teaching ability. What kind of development, it is asked, can 
result from the mere hearing of recitations ? And what kind of influence 
can be exerted by a teacher that never goes beyond the narrow scope of 
the school text-book ? Not that the legitimate use of text-books is to be 
discouraged, but only a servile dependence upon them; and it is claimed 
that the prescribing of topics rather than books, tends to prevent this. 
Says D. P. Page, in Theory and Practice of Teaching^ ''A teacher who 
is perfectly familiar with what is taught, has ten times the vivacity of one 
who is obliged to follow the very letter of the book." See Thomas Hill, 
The True Order of Studies (N. Y., 1876). 

CRAMMING-, a term used in regard to education, to denote the 
fault of tilling the mind with facts, without allowing it sufficient time to 
arrange and generalize them, to compare them with its previous ac- 
quisitions, or to determine their real significance, as related to general 
principles. It is thus a kind of mental stuffing, and, consequently, is 
opposed to the true object of education, which, as the word etymologically 
considered implies, is not to pour something into the mind, but to bring 
out, by appropriate exercise, its latent faculties. In college phrase, students 
are said to cram for an examination, when they make preparation with 
undue haste, impressing upon their memory by repetition a mass of things 
about which they expect to be questioned, but which, when the examina- 
tion is over, they immediately forget. Such a process is exceedingly 
injurious to the mind, since it is a misdirection of its powers, wasting 
them at a time when they should be all steadily employed in the formation 
of those habits of acquisition and thought, which constitute the basis of a 
somid intellectual character. 

In elementary education, cramming is, therefore, especially pernicious; 
and it is at this stage, that it is the most likely to occur. It may assume 
various forms, but chiefly the following: (1) Crowding the memory with 
verbal forinidce, — definitions, rules, statements of facts, names in 
geography, dates in history, etc. ; (2) Overtaskmg the powers of the mind 
with a multiplicity of studies, or with such as are not adapted to its 
immature condition, and, therefore, cannot be comprehended; (3) Undue 
haste in instruction, so that the pupils are compelled to commit to memory 
what they have had no time properly to digest in their minds. Cramming 
may be the result either of the ignorance of the teacher, or of circumstances 
which compel him to violate the correct principles of education for some 
special end, as the preparation of pupils for a public exhibition in which 
they may make an imposing display of their superficial acquirements. Such 
a sad perversion of the teacher's work as this implies is of too frequent 
occurrence; for parents and patrons are too fond of witnessing suph displays, 
and there are teachers whose eagerness for praise or patronage is sufficient 
to overcome their sense of the true object of their vocation. — See Blackie, 
On Self-Culture (Edinburgh, 1875}. 



76 CnECHE— CULTURE 

CRECHE, a french word signifying a crib or mm^ger, but used in 
France, Belgium, and some other countries in Euroj^e to designate a kind 
of infant asylum. 

CRUELTY (to Animals) is often a prevailing trait in the characters 
of children who have not been specially trained to habitsof kind, consid- 
erate, and humane feeling and conduct. 'J^he activity of a child's nature, 
its love of sport, and its undeveloped sympathies predispose it to acts of 
inconsiderate cruelty. The need of educating the sympathetic affections 
in order to counteract this tendency in youthful minds has been very 
generally recognized by educators. Habitual training, not mere precepts, 
can alone effect this. Locke is very earnest on this point. *' Children," 
says he, "should be accustomed from their cradles to be tender to all 
sensible creatures." See Cydopcedia of Education. 

CULTURE, a term used to denote the improvement of the human 
character by means of discipline, training, or self-exertion. It is used in 
jy ff f both an active and a passive sense ; in the former, implying the 
ejim ion. ^^^ ^^ ^^^ necessary means and agencies to cultivate the human 
faculties, and in the latter, the result of their operation. Culture com- 
prehends both development and refinement ; that is, not simply bringing 
into active exercise the latent powers of the mind or body, but adding 
thereto a nice and careful discrimination as to their proper or improper ex- 
ercise, with a due regard to the circumstances which require their employ- 
ment. Thus a man of culture not only is able to exjircss his thoughts in 
suitable and impressive language, but knows how to adapt his language to 
the persons, the place, and the occasions which call for this expression ; nor 
does he give utterance to his thoughts except when it is proper to do so. 
Hence, culture, in its mature stage, not only implies power, but restraint, 
both belonging to the inner nature of the individual. 'J'here are as many 
y,.„ ^ kinds of culture as there are departments of human nature, or 

jy fi>^ special faculties, to be cultivated and improved. Thus, culture 
may be physical, intellectual, moral, spiritual, and esthetic, ac- 
cording as its scope is the improvement of the powers and susceptibilities 
of the body, the intellect, the moral sentiments, the soul, or the taste. 
(Tcneral culture implies that everything constituting the character of the 
individual has been brought to as high a degree of improvement as is pos- 
sible. Special culture has reference to a particular department of human 
nature, or to the development of power in a certain direc^tion. Thus, the 
culture of the poet, the painter, the orator, the teacher, the lawyer, or the 
clergyman is special, developing faculties needed in the particular vocation 
of each. Special culture, however, does not exclude general culture ; for 
no man need be merely a practitioner, or worker in any narrow sphere of 
effort. The object of higher education is to give this general culture as a 
basis for that which is necessarily special, or technical. 

The real instrumentality, — in a certain sense the only one, by which 
culture can be effected, is self-exertion. None of the faculties, whether of 
^ J. . , the spirit, mind, or body, can be cultivated except by exercise. 
*^ .. " Thus a person can never learn to compose by studying grammar 
and rhetoric, nor to think and reason by committing to mem- 
ory the rules of logic. If he would learn to write, or to think and reason, 
he must write and think and reason, on the same principle and in the same 



CURRICULUM ~ DACTYLOLOGY 77 

way as a person learns to swim, or a child to walk. This exercise is the 
individual's own work ; but the exercise may be unsuitable and injurious, 
and, therefore, needs, at first, the careful guidance of experience. Hence, 
the need of an educator, until the individual has acquired sufhcient knowl- 
edge and experience to direct the exercise himself. This shows the relation 

J . of education and culture, the one being the handmaid of the 

. *- other. The instruments of culture vary with its special scope. 
(hilt p ^^^ those of physical culture, we must learn what a knowledge of 
physiology and experience in gymnastics dictate ; those of intel- 
lectual culture can be judiciously selected only by studying the laws which 
regulate the operations of the mind. But we are particularly to be on our 
guard in supposing that intellectual culture can spring from the mere 
study of other persons' ideas. True culture of this kind can alone come 
from (1) a patient, laborious, and diligent acquisition of ideas of our own, 
by observation and reflection ; and (2) the study of the experience of other 
minds, and its verification, as far as possible, by that of our own. " The 
original and proper sources of knowledge," says Professor Blackie, "are not 
books, but life, experience, personal thinking, feeling, and acting." And 
again, " All knowledge which comes from books comes indirectly, by re- 
flection, and by echo ; true knowledge grows from a living root in the 
thinking soul ; and whatever it may appropriate from without, it takes by 
living assimilation into a living organism, not by mere borrowing." (See 
Self- Culture, Edinburgh 1875.) This is simply an emphatic and illustrative 
expansion of the general principle above stated ; namely, that to 
„ , cultivate our faculties we must properly exercise them. No 
^ .. . moral culture can be secured by the study of ethics ; legitimate 
objects for the exercise of the moral feelings must be sought 
for and discovered ; and, more especially, the will must be trained so that 
it will obey the voice of reason and conscience, even amid the mightiest 

„ tempest of passion and desire. Related to this, is the culture 

„ ,^, of the soul — a culture which is paramount to all, and to which 
every other species of culture is subservient ; and just as one 
can learn to walk only by walking, to think only by thinking, and to live 
nobly only by acting nobly on every occasion, so one can advance in 
spiritual culture only by communing, by prayer and contemplation, with 
the Great Spirit, the Father of mankind, and the Creator of the universe. 
rr. • f True Christian culture comprehends the development of a 

■ns lan ^q^^(,^.^j ^q ^q right, and to be right, in every relation which 

" ^'^" we bear to each other, and to our Maker, simply by apply- 
ing the general principle herein enunciated, of active beneficence, based 
upon the simplest principles of moral and religious truth. (See Edu- 
cation.) 

CURRICULUM. See Couese of Instruction. 



DACTYLOLOGY. (Gr. 6dKTv7.oc, a finger), a method of communi- 
cating ideas by means of signs made with the fingers, composing what is 
called the manual or finger alphabet, and employed by the deaf and dumb. 
There are two alphabets of this kind: the single-hand alphabet, and the 
two-hand alphabet. 



78 DEAF-MUTES 

DEAF-MUTES, or Deaf and Dumb, a class of persons, scattered 
throughout every nation in a greater or less proportion, who cannot hear 
the sound of the human voice, and, consequently, lose that sympathetic as- 
sociation which exists between the organs of hearing and speech, so that 
the latter are rendered inactive. Two methods or systems of teaching are 
in use (with some modifications) in nearly all the institutions in the world. 
One is that of arilculaiion and lip-reading (sometimes called the 
Method of Q^^^-^^g^^^ method, because used in most of the German schools), 

teaching. ^^^ other that of loriting, or the sign language. Both have 
their special advocates; and each it is claimed, possesses superior facilities 
for educating the deaf and dumb. In teaching articulation, the pupil is 
placed before the teacher, who begins with the vowels, and requires the 
pupil to watch the motions he makes with his mouth, lips, and throat; he 
places the pupil's hand upon his own throat, so as to feel the different 
movements, and then imitate them himself. When he has succeeded in 
some degree, the consonants are introduced and practiced for a longer or 
shorter time, according to the ability or aptitude of the pupil. Simple 
words are then introduced, and their meaning illustrated by pointing out 
the object, action, etc.; and as progress is made in this, qualities and actions 
are introduced. This course must be continued, and the lessons repeated, 
till the pupil can read the lips of the teacher, and communicate his own 
thoughts, in questions and answers. Beading must then be taught; and 
the knowledge of language already acquired aids the pupil in understand- 
ing what he reads. It will be apparent that this is a work requiring much 
time and patience on the part of the teacher as well as of the pupil, merely 
to acquire the meaning of the words and their proper pronunciation. Most 
of the institutions in the United States give more or less in- 

Articula- ^^^yj^^HQYi in articulation, generally in special departments. The 
tion system, q^^^^^ Institution, the Boston Day School, the N. Y. Institu- 
tion for Improved Instruction, and Whipple's Home School make articu- 
lation a specialty. This mode of teaching is especially adapted to the con- 
dition of semi-mutes, who still retain some remnant of the ability to use 
spoken language. Experience has shown that children deprived of the 
sense of hearing can learn by means of sight and feeling, to distinguish the 
various elements of speech, to read them from the speaker "s lips, and to 
imitate them in articulation. 

The other method, writing and sign-making, is substantially taught in 

the following manner: ■ An object is shown to the pupil, as for example, a 

cat, and the natural sign made for it, an outline is then drawn on the slate, 

. . and c-a-t is written in the outline; the same sign is applied to 

Wilting ^j^^ name as was applied to the object and the outline; and the 
and sign- p^pjj ^j-^^^g iganjg the word. The object is removed and the out- 

making. j^^^ rubbed out; the same sign is used for the word alone, and 
the pupil soon associates it with the object. Other objects are presented, 
and the same process repeated. The color of the cat is then taught; as, if 
black, that is joined to the name, and hlack cat is learned; then action is 
represented, as black cat eats; and then the object follows, black cat eats 
meat. The phrases are lengthened as the pupil proceeds, and short stories 
are related by signs, and written down by the pupil, the proper distinctions 
beinor made at the time, so that the pupil, in a short time, is enabled to use 



DECIMAL NOTATION — DECLAMATION 79 

language properly. An important feature of this method is, that the pupil 
begins at once to learn Avorcls which convey meaning, without the slow 
process of learning the alphabet, the single letters of which convey no 
ideas; and in this manner the mind is quickened, and incited to redoubled 
activity by the knowledge gained. As this proceeds, the pupil becomes 
familiar with the printed as weU as the written characters, and soon under- 
stands short simple phrases; and then only a few months are recpiired to 
enable the pupil to understand clearly what is related to him. For further 
information, and statistics, see CydopcecUa of Education. 

DECIMAL NOTATION', the ordinary method of expressing num- 
bers on a scale of ten, ten units of any order being equal to one unit of the 
next higher order. The first lessons in arithmetic should give the pupil a 
clear idea of the principle of this notation. This can be done by means of 
the numeral frame (q. v.). 

DECLAMATION, or the formal delivery of set speeches or of 
memorized pieces of oratory, is a school exercise of considerable im- 
portance, when conducted in a proper manner and with a due regard to 
^, . . its special uses and limitations. The objects chiefly to be 
heicevtin S^^^®^ ^J exercises of this kind are the following: (1) The 

^.^ training and culture of the voice; (2) Practice in elocution; 
(3) The habit of speaking in public with confidence, ease, ancl 
grace; (4) The cultivation of a taste for public speaking; (5) An im- 
provement of the pupils' style of composition. In the education of boys 
and young men particularly, these are all points of gi-eat importance, 
inasmuch as the ability to speak effectively in public is of great value in all 
civilized communities. 

The following points should be carefully attended to in giving ele- 
mentary instruction in declamation: (1) The piece to be declaimed 
p • f 4 should be well studied, not only in its language, but in regard 
, , to the thoughts, emotions, reasoning, etc. which it may involve, 

, , and the circumstances under which it was originally spoken, as 

well as the character of the speaker; (2) Minute rudimentary 
criticism should be rendered unnecessary by sufficient preliminary training 
in enunciation and other departments of elocution, as well as in the use of 
gesticulation; (3) The various kinds of gestures having been taught, the 
pupil should be allowed great freedom in respect to their use; (4) The 
spirit, and not simply the form, should be the object aimed at in the in- 
struction; and no piece should be assigned to a pupil to speak which is be- 
yond his capacity to understand and appreciate. The pupils of the com- 
mon schools are generally not advanced sufficiently to receive theoretical 
instruction in rhetorical delivery; but this should find a place in the course 
of instruction of colleges, academies, and schools of a higher grade in gen- 
eral. Even the pupils of elementary schools, however, may be benefited by 
appropriate exercises in recitation and declamation; thus, the speaking of 
easy and interesting dialogues by two or more children will be found one 
of the best methods to impart to young j)upils a practical knowledge of 
the elementary rules of declamation, besides cultivating a natm-al style of 
speaking. 

DEFINITION. In giving instruction upon any subject, the need 
of defining terms constantly arises, in order (1) that the mind may clearly 



80 DEFINITIONS. 



conceive the object to which they are intended to apply, and (2) that 

the mind may understand what that object is as distinguished from 

. , all others. Hence, clearness of ideas and precision of thought 

-i/^c oj. ^gpgjjj upon accuracy of definition; for without this there 
must be a confusion of languaire which will preclude the possibility of 
correct thinking or reasoning. This may arise e ther from a dim con- 
^ ception of the thing spoken of, or from a misapplication 

a.e. in ^£ ^^ term used to denote it. It is a part of the fundamental 

". \' work of the teacher to instill the habit of accurately defin- 

^ ' ing the terms employed in every subject taught. This is 

generally recognized, but the principle is not always correctly applied. 
It is customary with many teachers, and most writers of elementary 

p, - text books, to begin with definitions, because this seems to be 
. ' ,/' the most logical in the formal treatment of any subject; but 
^'this practice is opposed to well-established principles of 
pedagogy. Definitions are dependent upon abstraction and generali- 
zation; and, without a knowledge of the concrete details from which 
they have been deduced, they often convey no distinct ideas to the 
mind. Definition should not be confounded with description: the 
former includes only what is required to distinguish the objects referred 
to from other objects; the latter should comprehend all that is required 
to convey to the mind a complete and vivid idea of the thing described. 
In tea. hing, we should rather begin with description and end with defini- 
tion; and, when, by this twofold process, the idea of what we wish to convey 
to the pupils" mind has been made distinct in itself and distinguished from 
all other things, the proper term should be associated with it. This is in 
accordance with the requirements of the developing method (q. v.). 

DEPIXITIONS, a branch of elementary education, usually having 
reference to instruction in the meaning of words. The operations of a 
. J ., ., child's mind naturally leal to a knowledge of words as represent- 
vocabularv ^^^'^^^ ^^ ideas; and, at quite an early age. a child acquires a 
^' very extensive vocabulary of terms and the ability to apply 
them properly, since they are learned not by formal statement or defini- 
tion, but by hearing them used, and by subsequent practice in using them 
in connection with the actual objects or conceptions which they represent. 
In this way, the words which young children learn make but little impres- 
sion upon their minds as words; but they are so intimately associated with 
the objects, actions, and qualities which they represent, that they convey 
to the mind the same ideas as the objects, actions, etc. themselves. The 
school exercises or lessons designed to increase the child's vocabulary, or to 
teach the meaning of words found in books, often disregard this natural 
method of acquisition, and attempt to teach the meaning of individual 
words by means of their approximate synonyms, without any regard to 
their application, or use in phrases and sentences. Without an embodi- 

Proner ^^^^^ °^ words in actual speech, the recitation of formal defini- 
meVind of ^^'^"'^ ^^ ^^ ^° "^^' -^^^^^ sufficient illustration of this kind, 
teackinq. *^^^ P.^P^^ should be required to tell, in his own language, the 
meaning of the word in question, which the teacher can then 
correct. No exercise in synonyms is of any value, but on the contrary, 
rather injurious, until the meaning of words has been thus explained. In 



1 



DEGEEES — DEPARTMENTAL SYSTEM 81 

oral lessons in definitions to classes, one pupil may be required to use the 
given word in a phrase or sentence, another to explain its meaning, and 
another to give a brief definition by a synonymous phrase or word. Very 
simple words, the meaning of which is already known to the child, should 
not be given for formal definition; since properly to define such words, re- 
quires a nice discrimination in the use of language, and a minuteness of 
analysis beyond the capacity of a young child. A full exercise of this kind 
should comprise the following : (1) To pronounce the word; (2) To use it 
in the construction of a phrase or a sentence; (3) To define it; (4) To write a 
sentence illustrating its meaning and use. [A written exercise for the whole 
class, each pupil Avriting a different sentence.] Instruction in the deriva- 
tion of words and the meaning of the common prefixes and suflSixes should 
be commenced at an early stage. 

DEGREES are titles of rank conferred upon students in colleges and 
universities, as evidence of their proficiency in the arts and sciences, or 
upon learned men as a testimony of their literary merits. At first, the 
terms master and doctor were applied indifferently to any person engaged 
in teaching in the university. In process of time, the term master was 
restricted to teachers of the liberal arts, and the term doctor to divinity, 
law, and medicine. When regulations were established to prevent unquali- 
fied persons from teaching, and an initiatory stage of discipline was 
prescribed, these terms became significant of a certain rank, and of the 
possession of certain powers, and were cRlled gradvs, — steps or degrees. 
Below is given a list of the various degrees usually conferred in this 
country, with the usual abbreviations employed to designate them. 

The colleges for females confer, in the place of the title Bachelor (of 
Letters, of Arts, of Liberal Arts), the title Graduate, though they retain 
the abbreviations L. B., A. B., and B. L. A. 



A. B., Bachelor of Arts. 
A. L., Laiireate of Arts. 
A. M., Master of Arts. 

A. S., Sister of Arts. 

B. A., Bachelor of Agriculture. 

B. Arch., Bachelor of Architecture. 

B. C. E., Bachelor of Civil Engineering. 

B. L A., Bachelor of Liberal Arts. 

B. M. E., Bachelor of Mining Engineering 

C. E., Civil Engineer. 

C. & M. E., Civil and ^lining Engineer. 

D. B , Bachelor of Divinity. 
D. C. L., Doctor of Civil Laws. 
D. D., Doctor of Divinity. 

D. D. M., Doctor of Dental Medicine. 
D. E., Dynamic Engineer. 
D. Sc, Doctor of Science. 
L. B., Bachelor of Letters. 



LL. B., Bachelor of Laws. 

LL. D., Doctor of Laws. 

L. Sc, Laureate of Science. 

M. B., Bachelor of Medicine. 

M. D., Doctor of Medicine. 

M. E., Mining Engineer. 

M. E. L., Mistress of English Literature. 

M. L. A., Mistress of Liberal Arts. 

M. L. L., Mistress of Liberal Learning. 

M. Sc, Mistress of Science. 

Mis. Mus., Mistress of Music. 

Mus. B., Bachelor of Music. 

Mus. D., Doctor of Music. 

Ph. B., Bachelor of Philosophy. 

Ph. D., Doctor of Philosophy. 

Sc. B., Bachelor of Science. 

Sc. M., Master of Science. 

S. T. D., Sacrae Theologiae Doctor. 



DEPARTMENTAL SYSTEM, or Subject System, a method of 
school organization in which each department of instruction or subject of 
study is assigned to a particular teacher, instead of requiring each teacher 
to give instruction to a particular class in all the branches of study 
pursued. This system is rarely employed in schools for primary instruc- 
tion; but, in those of a higher grade, is nearly universal. In regard to its 
advantages and disadvantages, as compared with the class system, many 
considerations are urged; and the experience of instructors seems to be 
quite diverse as to its success. The chief argument in its favor is, that it 



82 DEVELOPING METHOD 

would narrow the range of subjects required to be mastered by a single 
teacher, and, in this way, improve the character of the instruction imparted. 
For other considerations in regard to this question, see Class. 

DEVELOPING METHOD (in German entwickelnde Metlwde) is a 
term introduced into the science and practice of pedagogy through the 
philosophy of Herbart, and popularized among European teachers through 
_^ ^ . . its greatest followers, Beneke and Uiesterweg. It means an 
JJefimtion. q^^j^qq^^q^ of ^j^g natural endowments of the individual accord- 
ing to the psychologic laws of human development, and to the exclusion 
of aU purposes foreign to such development. The term, in some respects, 
is a misnomer, as it implies far more than it expresses. It means a system, 
realized in, or applicable to, a variety of educational methods, and based on 
the fundamental principle, that human nature alone, as developed and 
shown in its best products through a long historical period, should be the 
TT -L ., guiding star in all educational efforts. Herbart, who was the 

" first among the German philosophers, m opposition to the ])re- 

sy!> em. ya^iiing speculative philosophy, to apply the method of induction 
to philosophy, and who based his system on inductive psychology, and 
treated the latter mathematically, wrote, as early as 1806, a work on pedago- 
gy in which the new drift of educational ideas inaugurated by Rousseau 
and Pestalozzi, was reduced to logical principles. He was the first in his- 
tory to render intelligible the processes in the human soul which lead to 
memory, comparison, the distinction of impressions and their growth into 
mental images, notions, judgment and reason, disposition and wiU ; and, 
in so doing, he reasoned from the established facts of consciousness, and 
developed a long series of mathematical /o7'WiMZce as evidences of his cor- 
, ,rectness in interpreting the facts. Beneke, more straight-for- 
, \ ^ ward than Herbart, gave, in his Lelirbuch der Psychologie ah 
NatKrwissenscliaft (1833) , and Erziehungs- wid Unterrichtslehre 
(1835), a very lucid and common-sense exposition of this new system of 
psychology, in its application to pedagogy, which, through Diesterweg's 
practical treatises and school books, grew almost universally popular among 
the German teachers. The founders of this system did not go so far as to 
reach all the legitimate conclusions which may logically be derived from its 
principles, and which were drawn by the succeding generation of teachers. 
- The system, as now taught and practiced by men like Dittes and 

^ some of Froebel's followers, has undergone a series of gradual 

improvements, and seems capable of many more ; since human 
nature itself is a subject that receives, through the constant improvement 
of all the natural sciences, a daily increasing illustration. Nor is there, 
as yet, a complete agreement among the foremost pedagogical writers 
upon what may be considered the genuine development of human nature ; 
but the principle itself, that the spontaneous growth of all the faculties of 
the mind into the greatest possible harmony should be facilitated accord- 
ing to the laws of normal development, which are to be faithfully followed, 
not counteracted ; guided, but not curbed — and all this in the order 
which is indicated by nature herself — this principle seems to be so well 
established, that, henceforth, only its interpretation can be doubtful. 

This new psychology sails clear of all the rocks of preceding systems 
and of the maelstrom of party strife ; it deals with none but demonstrable 



DEVELOPING METHOD 83 

facts. Such facts are, that the unfolding of intelligence and mental activity 
in the newborn child is caused by impressions from without; that the latter, 
Founda- ^^^^^ traces, cannot grow into distinct images without a group- 
tion fads ^^° ^^ *^^ traces in an order corresponding to the outward ob- 
jects ; that we can verify by actual experiment, both with ani- 
mals and men, the laws according to which equal traces strengthen each 
other, and similar ones aggregate and form opposites to dissimilar groups of 
traces ; that fugitive impressions have obscure traces, lasting or often re- 
peated impressions, clear traces ; that one trace or set of traces is for a 
time obscured by new ones, and that the consciousness of an image is the 
effect of either pleasure or pain of the mind in consequence of the impres- 

Mental ^^*^^^' ^^^-^ ^^^- '^^^ theory goes on to show that all the higher 
vrocesses ^'^^^^'^^^^ processes are repetitions of the photographic action of 
^ * the first traces, in a higher order, and follow with mathematical 

exactness their laws. A normal pedagogy is, therefore, possible, inde- 
pendent of philosophical systems. Disputed questions of physiology and 
psychology concern only unimportant toj^ics, and, therefore, may be ignored 
and left to the future development of science ; but it is all-important in 
pedagogy to demonstrate clearly all the conditions without which no mind 
can grow, w^hatever the nature of mind itself may be. 

It is, therefore, of the first importance to cultivate the action of the 
senses, the gates to all mental development, in such a way as to render 
p _ them self-active by their appropriate combination with pleasure 

T ^ ^* and pain; next, to oifer to their self -activity a succession of out- 
^"^ ■ ward impressions which will leave distinct and, by repetition, 
lasting traces and the most complete images of objects, accompanied by 
sensations and impulses. The first consciousness being thus awakened, it 
follows that a comparison and distinction of the representations once pro- 
duced must lead to both clear notions of their single features and clear 
consciousness of the mind, without which the origin of self-consciousness 
would be retarded, and its growth stunted. The latter taking its start 
from the first efforts in speaking, language becomes the chief means of edu- 
cation, and its proper use on the part of the educator, in connection with 
the objects designated, the way to the subsequent normal development. 
The gap in this system left between this stage and the first school age was 
not filled until Froebel, starting from a somewhat different stand-point, 
invented his kindergarten plays. 

Great stress is, in this system, laid on the gradual progress of educa- 
tion, which, after all, is little more than instruction, a somewhat one-sided 
p . , culture of the intellect, the imagination, and the memory. The 

rac ica ^gg^gj^^gj. jg iq proceed from the simple to the compound, from the 

^^ ^^' concrete to the abstract, from perception to refiection in the pu- 
pil, from examples to rules^ from facts to laws. He is to be more a guide 
than a teacher; he is not to tell his pupils any thing which they can be led 
to find out themselves. He is to present them just mental food enough, 
and no more, at a time, than can be fully digested; and that food ought to 
be adapted to the age and degree of development. Every kind of mental 
food ought to be so fully digested as to contribute to the strengthening of 
every mental faculty. The pupil is to be rendered his own teacher; hia 
self-activity is to be fostered first, last, and at all times. 



84 DEVELOPING METHOD 

The cultivation of the memory at the expense of observation and re- 
flection, which, in all routine teachinor, plays so prominent a part, is made 
unnecessary by stimulating the mental appetite and digestive 
Mouj,ne power of the pupil; whatever is fully understood will forever re- 
teacMng. ^.^j^^ mental property. All mechanical drill, and all moral 
preaching, is more hurtful than useful, because skill in the learner is to 
grow out of repeated self -appropriation connected with that pleasure which 
accompanies the satisfaction of every mental appetite; and because an ap- 
propriate mental food is conducive to moral power. Development means 
self-development, guided by well-developed educators. 

It is evident that this new system exacts a far higher standard of abili- 
ties and attainments in the educator than ever before had been deemed 
, necessary. This necessity led to a considerable improvejnent in 
leac er s ^^^^ course of training of pupil teachers in the German and other 
requiie- jjQj.jjial schools. "The teacher is the school," was the maxim in- 
^^^^ ^' culcated there. If he be the proper person destined by natural 
gifts and prepared for his calling by a careful study of mental phenomena 
and a long theoretic and practical training, he will make up for the short- 
comings of text-books, apparatus, and previous education. If he be full of 
enthusiasm for his sacred task of forming minds, and patient in all his 
labi^rious methods, he will mould his pupils' minds and morals by means 
of their self-development. The rational sobriety of this system was greatly 
aided by the marvelous spirit of self-devotion and educational enthusiasm 
which had been engendered in the teaching fraternity by Pestalozzi; and 
it may be called a fact, that hardly ever, or anywhere, was there done such 
intelligent and faithful work in thousands of schools, and for so scanty a 
remuneration, as in the developing-method schools up to the period of the 
''School Regulations." 

Among the reforms in special methods that followed in the wake of 
this system, must first be mentioned the introduction of phonic or phonetic 
_ reading. Spelling was althogether superseded, and orthographi- 

ejorms ^^j ^pj^^^g exercises substituted based on a few rules which the 
m ^P^^^'^ pupils had to deduce for themselves from a comparison of ex- 
*^ ^ * amples. Graser and Vogel improved this method, which is 
liable to be too mechanically applied, by combining it with the writing- 
reading and the sijniheiico-annlytiG methods. The former begins with 
analyzing the single sounds of which the words consist and teaching the 
written signs for them, and continues with writing these and other words; 
printed words, or rather sentences, are introduced when the pupils can 
read all written letters, and thereafter all that has been read must be fault- 
lessly copied. The latter begins with sentences that must be analyzed into 
their component words, and the words into their component sounds; the 
corresponding signs (letters) are then given, either in written, or in printed 
form, or in both (as in Douai's method, exemplified in his Rational Readers) 
and then synthesis-reading begins, accompanied with constant copying ex- 
ercises, which must be carefully regulated. Another improvement has 
been effected by connecting penmanship exercises with the first writing ex- 
ercises by means of time-beating (Takfuchreiben). The object is to prevent 
the formation of careless habits instead of weeding them out when formed, 
which is still further aimed at by reading in concert, alternately with indi- 



DEVELOPING METHOD 85 

vidual reading. In arithmetic, the beginning was made with mental exer- 
cises in the analytic method; but there is a great variety in the methods 
of connecting analysis with ciphering, and in the extent to which it is 
carried. Great importance, however, is universally attributed to a full 
understanding of the value of numbers, both single and in their decimal 
orders. Some methods, progressing through concentric circles of 1 — 10, 
10 — 100, 100 — 1000, etc. , involve, within each circle, all the four ground 
rules; some, only addition and subtraction together, and, later, multiplica- 
tion and division together; some, only one at a time, with larger concentric 
circles, etc. Some introduce the elements of fractions at a very early 
stage, dividing them also into concentric circles; some introduce decimal 
fractions even before common fractions. Object lessons in special branches, 
according to the older (Pestalozzian) process, were to some extent crowded 
out when all teaching became object ieathing] yet special object lessons in 
zoology and botany, geometry and geography, remained favorite branches 
in most plans of teaching. The method of teaching the mother-tongue is 
also very variable; but, through all the variety, a tendency is conspicuous 
to make the most of the pupil's self-activity by guiding him to form sen- 
tences orally and in writing, whether for orthographical, grammatical, rhe- 
torical, or elocutionary purposes. Grammatical analysis with parsing oc- 
cupies far less time than synthesis. It is a strange fact that the study 
of Latin and Greek has, only recently and to a very limited extent, 
been subjected to the same method; but the modern languages were 
treated in the analytico-synthetic way (not to be confounded with the 
Ahn or Ollendorff method, from which it is distinguished by its scientific, 
pedagogic spirit, and far greater eflBciency). There is an endless variety 
of special methods in all branches of primary and secondary instruction, 
which it is not necessary here to explain. 

It is useless to discuss the merits and shortcomings of special methods, 

since any one of them that has passed the ordeal of a practical applica- 

Methods ^^^^ ^^ ^^^ school room may be called good, because adapted 

7iot to to the genius both of the teacher and his particular class of 
he stereo- pupils. No single practical method can claim universal appli- 

typed. cability; since every one will need to be modified in order to be 
adapted, not only to the teacher's peculiar development, but also to 
that of the class or pupil. He is a bad follower of the developing 
method who treats, year in and year out, every new class of pupils 
according to a stereotyped manner for each branch of instruction, instead 
of accommodating himself to the wants of the class. The developing 
method means nothing more nor less than that there shall be method 
in all the teacher's doings, — a well-concerted plan, calculated to develop 
every gift of each pupil by educating him to self-activity in every branch 
of the curriculum, and to produce a certain degree of uniform general 
development without neglecting either the forward, or the backward 
portion of the class. And high as this standard of effectiveness may be, 
experience proves that it will be almost universally realized, if the posi- 
tion of the teacher be sufficiently remunerative, independent, and honored, 
to attract to the profession all persons born to be teachers. This reali- 
zation has, moreover, been considerably facilitated by the preparation for 
primary classes, obtained from Froebels kindergarten. 



86 DIARY — DIDACTICS 

DIARY, School, a daily record of the lessons, recitations, deportment, 
etc., of pupils, kept in a small book which is taken home each day, or each 
week, to be exhibited to the parents, whose inspection is attested by their 
signature previous to the diary's being returned to the teacher. Thus, a 
constant correspondence is kept up between parent and teacher, the former 
being continuously informed of the chOd's progress, merit or demerit, and 
behavior; and thus enabled intelligently to co-operate in his school educa- 
tion. Instead of the diary, some teachers prefer the monthly report. 

DICTATION", a school exercise in which the teacher reads or speaks 
(dictates) to the pupils what is to be written by the latter for practice 
in writing, spelling, etc. Such exercises are very useful, not only to 
give accuracy and expertness in writing words and sentences, but to 
train the ear to the ready apprehension of spoken language. In this 
respect, it supplements copying, which exclusively disciplines the eye. 

DIDACTICS, the theory of instruction, as distinguished from that 

of education in its narrower sense, implying simply moral education. It 

is commonly treated under two heads: general didactics, which exhibits 

Definition the philosophical principles of teaching, and the conditions of 

and its success; and special didactics, or meihodics, which applies 

division, the general truths to the several branches of instruction, the 

different ages to be instructed, and the various individual characters and 

their treatment. The distinction between didactics and pedagogy in the 

narrower sense is made only for the sake of separate scientific treatment, 

as it is universally conceded that all instruction can be rendered 

. .:^'^,. a means of moral education, and that no instruction deserves 

^^^marcU^^ the name, or can be truly successful, without a corresponding 

development of moral power. In any branch of instruction, 

the very first beginning presupposes attention on the part of the pupil, 

while the progress made will depend on his self -activity, and his ultimate 

mastership on his full appropriation of all the moral power inherent in 

the branch of art or science concerned. On the part of the teacher, 

moral power, engendered by such mastership, must be presupposed, if 

he is to impart to his pupil attention, self-activity, and love for the 

Consid- subject. In regard to the age of the pupil, instruction and 

eration of moral education bear to each other a changing proportion. 

age. During the first age, — from earliest infancy up to the eighth 

or tenth year, the so-called formal purpose of education prevails in 

importance; the several functions of the youthful mind must be made 

self -active, and the material purpose of didactics, — the acquisition of 

knowledge or positive learning, must be made a mere means to the former, 

80 that no more of each concentric circle of facts be given to appropriate 

than can be digested for the benefit of each function. The second age, 

which extends to the beginning of sexual maturity, is the one during 

which instruction and education should be, as it were, in equipoise; while, 

in the period after sexual maturity, the material purpose, that of the 

acquisition of knowledge and skill, may preponderate. In regard to the 

branches of instruction, general didactics shows which of these are adapted 

to the several stages of the mental and moral development of the three 

ages, and which concentric circle of facts and truths of every science and 

art may be introduced at the time when it can serve as wholesome mental 



"' DILIGENCE 87 

and moral food. A most important distinction is made between the 
pedagogical and the scientific treatment of every subject of instruction, 
Fedagogi- ^^^ latter being of necessity systematic and syntlieiic, while the 
cal and former should be methodic and analytic first, synthetic last; 
scientific that is to say, should introduce every object of learning at 
treatment. ^^^-^ ^ time, and in such a manner, that it may be mentally and 
morally appropriated. 

Special didactics, commonly designated as methodics, treats of the 
pedagogical means proper in each branch of instruction, at each age and 
. stage of development. An explanation of the more important 
■j^^^^ methods of didactics will be found under the titles of the various 
I ac ics. -braQches. In general, however, we may state that all prominent 
educators concur in holding that the teacher is every-where the best 
method, as he is in fact the school itself, if he be a true teacher. It would, 
however, be a dangerous error to suppose, on that account, that every 
teacher should be left free to invent his own methods, or could be expected 
to be successful without an acquaintance with the best methods in use. 
This error will be avoided by those who, on the one hand, are so deeply 
imbued with the great responsibility of their calling, as to feel that the 
wisdom of the preceding generations of great teachers cannot be neglected, 
and, therefore, that the methods devised and practiced by them should be 
made a subject of faithful and conscientious study; but who, on the other 
hand, realize the principle that the most approved methods cannot benefit 
a teacher who has not mentally so appropriated them as to reproduce them 
according to his own individuality, and to be able to adapt them 
to the peculiar wants of his pupils, as well as to all other circum- 
stances in which he is placed. All teaching should be methodical in 
every aspect; it should be based on the thorough appropriation of a 
proper system of pedagogy; and it should be a natural outgrowth of the 
teacher's personality, if it is to perform its proper office in the work of 
real education. 

DILIGENCE, the virtue of constancy in labor, is an important, 
though not the sole, means of success in any branch of human calling. It 
is a function of the wiU power, as distinguished from intellect and sensa- 
tion, and is of spontaneous growth, wherever the occupation is akin to the 
inclination and productive of pleasure. It can, therefore, artificially be 
engendered only by connecting the occupation with pleasurable emotions 
that are not foreign to the subject. Where the latter are missing, only dire 
necessity can keep diligence alive, — either some necessity from natural, or 
from positive law. But then diligence has ceased to be a virtue, though 
it may continue as a habit, mechanically as it were. In education, diligence 
is more powerful than natural adaptation, as all the experience derived 
from the history of great men shows. It is the office of pedagogy to 
promote diligence in the pupils by spontaneous growth, as is done in the 
kindergarten system of education. Where such spontaneous growth has 
not been effected by early influences, an artificial growth must be cultivated; 
but the pleasurable emotions to be connected with the occupation, should 
be prompted as little as possible by means foreign to the subject, such as, 
for instance, outward punishments, rewards, purely mechanical discipline, 
or the stimulus of ambition. Whatever the occupation or study in which 



88 DIPLOMA — DISCIPLINE 

pupils are required to engage, they should, as soon as possible, be induced 
to take a lively interest in it for its own sake ; because such an interest will 
arouse into active exercise all the best powers of their minds, and thus lead 
to the most effective and salutary educational discipline. Besides, the habit 
of depending upon external incentives, — the love of distinction, of praise, 
of pleasure, or of gain, must necessarily engender selfishness, and thus 
narrow and debase the mind which a generous, earnest zeal in the pursuit 
of a praiseworthy object would expand and ennoble. 

DIPLOMA (Gr. d'nrluiia, any thing doubled, or folded), a term an- 
ciently given to a formal certificate of authority, because such documents 
were usually written on double or folded waxen tablets. In more modern 
times, the term was applied to a royal charter or to any governmental 
testimonial of authority privilege, or dignity. (Hence the science of state 
documents is called diplomatics. ) The term is now chiefly confined to a 
certificate given by a university, college, or other literary institution, as an 
evidence that the person upon whom it is conferred has attained a certain 
degree of scholarship; or, in the case of professional schools, as a license to 
practice a particular art. 

DISCIPLINE (Lat. disciplina, from discere, to learn), a term which, 
according to its hteral acceptation, means the condition of a disciple, or 

learner; that is, subordination requiring strict obedience to cer- 
Dejimtion. ^^^^ directions or rules, or conformity with a system of instruc- 
tion, having for its object some kind of training. Hence the word dis- 
cipline is sometimes used in an active sense as synonymous with training or 
culture, as in the expression intellectual or moral discipline. Sometimes 
it is employed to denote school government; and, frequently also punish- 
ment for the commission of oifeuses. The word, however, should, partic- 
ularly in education, be confined to its strict meaning as above defined. In 

all teaching, there is need of attention and obedience on the part 
discivUne ^^ ^^^^ P^pi^l ^^^^ ^s an important aim of education is to instiU 
* certain habits as a basis for the formation of character, the 
learner must be required constantly and punctiliously to conform to certain 
rules and general precepts; and the discipline of the teacher is good or bad 
in proportion as he succeeds in enforcing obedience to these necessary 
rules. In large schools, the system of regulations becomes more compli- 
cated, and a habitual ready attention to them on the part of the pupils 

produces what is technically called orde7\ (See Order.) This 
Order. ^^^^^ ^£ discipline assimilates to what is required in an army, 
with the special object of so unifying a large number of men that they may 
be moved as a single person. In military discipline, the individual is sacri- 
ficed to the general object to be attained by its enforcement; indeed, he 
has no claim to consideration, except what is secondary and subordinate. 
The danger, in the management of large schools, is that the same principle 
wiU be applied, the interests of the pupils as individuals being lost sight of 
in the endeavor to enforce mere discipline for the purpose of general man- 
agement or show. In education, however, the interests of the individual 
should never be disregarded. School machinery, — marching and counter- 
marching, sinmltaneous movements, the motionless gaze, or the dead silence 
of multitudes of children, all perhaps trembling under restraint, certainly 
constitutes a kind of discipline, but a kind, if not absolutely pernicious, of 



DISCIPLINE 89 

but little educational value. Order is indispensable to the proper working 
of a school; but it has been well remarked that "good order involves im- 
pression rather than repression; it does not consist in a coercion from which 
result merely silence, and a vacant gaze of painful restraint; but it proceeds 
from the steady action of awakened and interested intellect, — the kind- 
ling of an earnest purpose and an ambition to excel. " Hence, the dis- 
cipline that is necessary to produce order in a school or class, is of second- 
ary importance, in comparison with that which has for its object to train 
the intellectual and moral nature of the pupils as individuals. "Bydis- 

cipline", says Currie, "we understand the application of the 

to ^be^ niotives which prompt the pupil to diligent study and to good 

cultivated, conduct"; that is, such motives as the desire of the approbation 

of teacher or parent, emulation, or the desire of distinction, the 
hope of reward, and the fear of punishment. To what extent these mo- 
tives should be resorted to, and their comparative efficacy in dealing with 
children of different temperaments and traits of character, constitute im- 
portant subjects lor careful discussion. (See Government, and Rewards). 
All moral discipline must be directed to the training of the will; and 
it is in this connection that the consideration of motives becomes of primary 

importance. Educators are at considerable variance as to the 
discipline P^*^P^^ methods of controlling the wiU of children. Some ad- 
vocate, in all cases, an application of the law of kindness, and 
contend that physical force should never be brought in to coerce or restrain 
even the most self-willed pupil; others are of the opinion, based on ex- 
perience, as they claim, that, in some cases, physical punishment is in- 
dispensable. The best training is, without doubt, that which brings into 
play the pupil's higher nature, and leaves him habitually actuated by 
motives derived from it. The child cannot be always restrained by fear, — 
that is, the fear of immediate physical pain; and, hence, the discipline to 
which he is to be subjected, should be such as will implant motives and 
principles of conduct that will be effective as a means of permanent self- 

control. The mere subduing of the will of children is not suffi- 
^thewill^ cient; indeed, it may be injurious. The aim of the teacher 

should be to bring the will into subjection to conscience and a 
sense of right; in the words of a distinguished educator, " to discourage 
the child in the proper development of its nature has a tendency to crush 
out the life of the child rather than to cultivate that life into better 
methods of thought and action". The motives brought to bear in the 
school-room should, as far as possible, be those which will be operative in 

after life. Special school incentives, such as merit marks etc., 
Incentives. ^^^ useful and proper within certain limitations; but the great 
aim should be to dispense with them, and substitute natural for artificial 
motives — motives that will cling to the child during his whole after life. 

Unnatural, overstrained discipline, that is, the exaction of a 
^disctline P^^^^^® conformity with the minor regulations of a school, not 
^ ' ' only crushes out the individuality of the child for the time, but 
in its reaction engenders a feeling of resistance in his mind, which, having 
no outward demonstration, naturally results in a habit of deceit. Nothing 
is so baneful to the nature of a child as an atmosphere of tyranny and 
arbitrary power; and any system of discipline that is founded exclusively 



90 DISGEACE — DIVERSIONS 

upon it, must produce the worst effects possible. After all, the best dis- 
cipline, even if the outward order should not be so exact, is that which is 

brought to bear upon the pupils through the consistent example, 
f -^(^^ and the kindly heart-felt sympathies, of the living teacher, whose 

very presence is sunshine to his school, and who quells wayward- 
ness by the sublimity of his patience, firmness, and perfect self-control. 
" The discipline of a school", says Baldwin, in The Art of School Manage- 
ment (New York, 1881), "should be intrusted to no one unfamiliar with 
the science of duty, for everything of value to human beings is involved in 
this science" (See Conscience, Cultuee of.) 
DISGRACE. See Punishment. 

DIVERSIONS. An important part of the education of youth con- 
sists in affording them an opportunity for natural, unrestrained diversions, 

in which they may have free scope to exercise mind and body, 

Scope to he particularly the latter, according to their inclinations. During 

gtven^ Ij^^ early period of childhood, no tasks can be or need be im- 

impulse. posed to guide or accelerate the natural development of the 

mental and physical faculties; the buds of humanity open of 
themselves, if their condition is normal, and their growth is not arrested 
by injudicious interference. At first, nature, as a wise educator, trains 
through the pleasurable emotions; for the impulses which she inspires are 
all to varied activity, and activity is delight when nerves and muscles have 
the spring of health and vital energy. A few lessons in conscious restraint 
are all that this period requires or admits. They are purely negative, 
checking the violence of natural impulse, not urging the child's activity in 

any particular direction. This is the education of home and 
Jfo?77e parents, when presided over by love and good sense, during the 
' first years of the child's existence, — a period of continuous diver- 
sion. "When the age for serious application begins, — the season for labor, 
or occupation under restraint, the educator should strive to make the 
transition as easy and gentle as possible. Frequent diversions should be 
intermingled with formal exercises; and much will be gained if those exer- 
cises be made to partake of the nature of diversions, by having the 
characteristics of novelty and variety, and by stimulating the child's 
curiosity. As the age of the child increases, passing into youth, the times 

for regular occupation and for recreation, or diversions, become 
%0^'ui^ more distinctly separated. The boy or the girl is gradually led 

to feel that there are duties to be performed, as well as sports to 
be enjoyed; and that the pleasure received from the latter will be greatly 
increased by the feeling that it has been earned by a conscientious devotion 
to the former. Hence, under no circumstances, should youth be deprived 
of their opportunities for free and innocent recreations, except as a penalty 

for misdoing or neglect of duty. The office of diversions is 

Owce. twofold, — recreation and exercise. The former is absolutely 

essential after studious employment, to refresh the mind; and the latter 

is needed to give health and vigor to the body. Those sports are the best, 

therefore, which combine cheerful relaxation of the one with the due 

employment of the other. Boys, if left to themselves, will take 
of horn "violent exercise, and thus develop their physical powers and pro- 
mote their growth; and girls will select sports of a lighter 



DEAWING 91 

character, — such as are adapted to their different physical constitution. 
It is a serious error on the part of parents to keep their boys under painful 
restraint, and, from solicitude for their safety, to debar them the enjoyment 
of diversions common to their age, because attended with some degree of 
danger. Excessive maternal tenderness and care thus exercised must 
result in rendering boys effeminate, and unfit to cope with the dangers and 
trials of subsequent life. The only need of restraint is to keep boys from 
vicious actions, low company, petulance and a contentious spirit in their 
sports, and from too daring and perilous feats of agility and strength, 
(jJymnastic exercises may also be made a recreation, and, when carried on 
with some system, they constitute an important part of a regular physical 
education. (See Gymnastics.) AVhat has been called athletics, — rowing, 
swimming, riding, ball-playing, cricket, etc., are greatly to be encouraged 
in the maturer periods of youth, not only on account of their effect in devel- 
oping physical vigor, but because they keep those who actively engage in 
them from those vicious indulgences which constitute the great peril of 
that age. As for the more quiet in-door pastimes, they should be en- 
couraged with moderation. Chess and draughts may be permitted; but, 
in these games, particularly in the former, there is great danger of excess; 
and it has never been demonstrated that a good chess-player is, on that ac- 
count, good for any thing but to play chess. The game of billiards gives 
training to the hand and the eye, and involves considerable exercise, 
moderate but healthful; yet it may be doubted whether youth should be en- 
couraged to engage in it, because of its fascinating character and its tendency 
to draw their attention from more useful and necessary employments, not 
to mention the dangerous associations of the billiard room. 

DRAWING, may be divided into two distinct departments, in- 
strumental and free-hand, the former being principally employed in the 
mechanical, engineering, and architectural branches of industry; the latter, 

. . by artists, designers, and others. The two divisions are sorae- 
Jjimsions. ^jjj-jgg referred to as scientific and artistic, because the subjects 
coming under the first group, are based on scientific principles, and the 
results obtained are capable of demonstration by geometry; whilst free- 
hand w^ork, either in imitation or original design, employs the perceptive 
rather than the reasoning faculties, and its results have to be judged 
by the standard of taste, in all the features which do not involve a question 
of fact. 

Instrumental Drawing. — The group of subjects which come under 
this division may be classified as elementary or applied'i the first teaching 
methods of obtaining accuracy of form, and its appearance under given 
conditions; the second applying this power of drawing to practical pur- 
poses, in the arts of planning, construction, and design. — The elementary 
subjects are: (1) plane geometrical drawing; (2) projection of 
Subjects. gQjjjjg^ ^^j radial or perspective, (b) parallel or orthographic; 
(3) projection of shadows, (a) radial or perspective, (bj parallel or ortho- 
graphic and isometric. — 'The applied subjects are: (1) architectural 
drawing and building construction; (2) machine drawing, construction, 
and design; civil and military engineering; (3) surveying and topographical 
drawing; and (4) ship draughting, and marine architecture. — The elemen- 
tary subjects teach the student how to draw the forms of lines, planes, or 



92 DRAWING 

solids, either as the eye sees them by perspective, or as they actually exist, 

by orthographic or isometric projection. The forms usually employed 

in teaching, are regular geometric planes and solids, conveying, 

Forms, -^y. ^j^^ iDstruction given, the principles of representation by 

lines, on planes of delineation, when the objects are seen in space, or in a 

defined position in relation to the eye. The study of the elements of 

instrumental drawing is necessary, therefore, because by it we learn how 

to draw, as a science, which is obviously required before we can apply it to 

Element- purposes involving a knowledge of the science. The elementary 

ary branches may thus be considered purely educational, whilst the 

hranches. advanced or applied divisions may be described as industrial. — 

In the applied subjects, a knowledge of plane and solid geometry prepares 

the architectural draughtsman to make working drawings for the builder, 

the carpenter, the mason, and other mechanics employed in the 

Applied ei-gctiou and construction of buildings; displaying, by geometrical 

drawings made to a regular scale, the true forms and dimensions 

of all parts of the fabric; enabling the builder to calculate exactly the 

quantity of materials required in its construction, and each artisan to 

prepare his share of the work, so that it shall truly fit its place. The 

science of projection and perspective is the basis of the language by which 

the architect expresses his design for the whole structure, displaying his 

arrangement of the plan, his design for the elevation, the true form of the 

building in its several aspects, and the appearance of the whole by means 

of a perspective view. — Again, in mechanical engineering, the designer 

Mechan- ^^ ^ machine must be thoroughly acquainted with projection 

ical engin-BB a science, before he can express on paper his devices for 

eering. securing the speed and power required for his purpose. Working 

drawings have then to be made of the several parts and details, to furnish 

accurate information to the model maker, by which he may make each 

part of the machine in wood, to the moulder who has to cast it in metal, 

and for the guidance of the finisher and fitter who complete the work and 

erect the machine. So, also, iu surveying and topographical drawing, the 

actual features of a country or an estate are ascertained through 

^^1c^^^' ^^^^ application of plane and solid geometry, and reduced from 

the natural size to a plan which is, in all respects, like the true 

plan of the original, although on a different scale. By the use of such 

scale drawings, railways are planned and executed, cities and towns are 

laid out; and, by civil and military engineers, who employ the same means 

of delineating their work, cities are drained, supplied with water, or 

fortified and protected, bridges are built to span the river, and piers made 

to encroach upon the sea, tunnels made to cut through hills and mountains, 

and embankments and viaducts to fill the inequalities of valleys. — The 

^ marine engineer or naval constructor is equally dependent upon 

^ruction. ^^^ knowledge of projection, in laying out the lines of his ship 

or boat, in displaying its capacity for freight, and modeling its 

shape for speed. All these features of his design are expressed by means 

of drawings, which are the application of plane and solid geometry to a 

special industrial purpose. It will be evident, therefore, that the constructive 

arts, which bear so important a relation to modern civilization, and employ 

60 vast a number of persons, are all dependent upon drawing for the 



DRAWING 93 

initiation of their schemes. At the foundation of successful work, in any 

and all of their departments, lies a knowledge of elementary drawing, 

wliich, regarded as a language, is of such a character, that it may be 

efficiently taught in the elementary schools by the regular teachers 

employed to give instruction in general subjects, as soon as this 

practically useful subject forms a part of all normal-school education. Pure 

Applica- geometry may be considered the study of all these sciences in 

tion of the abstract, and this is successfully pursued in the schools and 

geometry, colleges; scientific or instrumental drawing, under the headings 

called elementary subjects, would be the concrete application of geometry 

to the needs of practical education, to be applied at a future time to 

actual industry. 

Free-Hand Drawing. — As the name implies, this kind of drawing is 
the expression, by the unassisted hand, of what the eye perceives, or the 
. . mind, or imagination, conceives. Its results, therefore, are de- 
Wliat It IS. pg,i(jgnt upon the truthfulness of observation or power of con- 
ception possessed by the draughtsman, and, in some measure, upon his 
manipulative skill as a workman. As a rule, however, the power of draw- 
ing, or expression, is equal to the perceptive power, and imperfect or faulty 
work proceeds generally from a lack of clear understanding of the subject 
rather than want of hand skill. — As in instrumental drawing, free-hand 
. . drawing consists of two groups of subjects, — elementary and 
Dwisions. appiig(-|^ fi^Q gpst being educational, and the second, industrial 
or professional. In the elementary division, are all those branches of study 
or exercises which develop the imitative faculties, embracing all kinds of 
Element- copying from flat examples or round objects, including also the 
rtrt/, and subjects of geometrical drawing and perspective, by which alone 
applied, the truthfulness of expressed form can be tested. In applied 
drawing, the language of form is employed to embody new ideas, either as 
original designs for industrial art and manufactures, or to express the ideal 
of fine art, the work of the imagination. It will be seen, therefore, that 
both scientific and artistic drawing, by instruments or by the free hand, 
have a common characteristic; they both involve a knowledge of, and skill 
in, drawing as a language, before the language can by employed 
Drawing for original purposes. To continue the analogy, and regarding 
lanauaae ^^^^wing as the language of form, its alphabet consists of two 
letters, the straight line and the curve. Simple combinations of 
these, by elementary practice, produce, as it were, words of one syllable; 
the grouping of several objects in a drawing, may be described as a sentence; 
and an original design is the same as a composition or essay on a given 
theme. The artist uses the expression " out of drawing" in precisely the 
same sense as a scholar employs the term " ungrammatical", and (other 
terms being substituted) the criticism which has been made on a poem or 
a work of fiction, might apply exactly to a historical picture or an ideal 
jy ,. . figure, possessing similar characteristics. To ensure success in 
ofsuccess teaching the subject in the public schools, the following conditions 
'are necessary: (1) Only those elementary branches should be 
taught which are educational in their influence, and the knowledge conveyed 
by them of general use (such as have been described as being at the foun- 
dation of all constructive industry) . (2) Instruction in drawing should begin 



94 DRILL — DULL SCHOLARS 



with school life, and' end only when school, college, or university education 
is completed. (3) At the basis of all instruction is geometrical drawing, 
which illustrates the facts of regular forms; and perspective, which 
determines the appearance of those facts. (4) Original design, either 
elementary or applied, should form a part of the regular exercises required 
from pupils, alternating with other exercises, such as drawing from memory, 
and dictation, in order to give variety to the study. (5) The principles of 
drawing, and of shades and shadows, should first be taught from regular 
forms, and with scientific method and accuracy, before the pupils are 
allowed to draw and shade irregular forms, with no guide but their own 
observation. All practice should proceed from the simple to the complex, 
from the regular to the irregular, from the fact to its appearance. 

The following is suggested as a coiase of insiruciion ior elementajry 
schools: 

1st year. — Tlie names of geometric forms and lines; drawing straight lines and 
their combinations into simple forms; also, the same forms from memory. (All 
work on the slate.) 

2d 2/^ar. — Dictation and memory drawing of geometric patterns; simple 
designs composed of straight lines and simple curves. (Slate work.) 

3d xjeav. — Practice on paper of what has been previously learned; also in draw- 
ing, with readiness, from memory and dictation, forms previously drawn from copy. 
Designing new combinations from copies. 

Uh year. — Free-hand outline design, geometrical drawing, model drawing of 
both curved forms and objects bounded by right lines. 

bih year. — Drawing ornaments and objects of historical character, as Egyptian 
lotus forms, Greek vases, etc.; the same to be drawn also from memory; geo- 
metrical drawing of a more advanced character. 

6//J,, Wi, and Sth years. — Free-hand drawing and design, geometrical drawing, 
model drawing (from the solid object), and free-hand perspective (developing ideas 
in preparation for advanced work), dictation and memory drawing; design with 
haU-tiut back grounds. Botanical names and forms. Colors and tue tirst principles 
of their harmony. See Cydopwdia of Education. 

DRILL, a term used in education, particularly in school instruction, 
to denote the strict routine of exercises required either to train pupils to the 
ready performance of mental or physical processes, or to impress upon 
their memory those arbitrary associations of facts or words which are re- 
quired in many subjects of study. Thus, a certain amount of drill is 
required in teaching the arithmetical tables, the paradigms and rules of 
grammar, the spelling of words, and those facts of geography that pertain 
to the location of places (memorizing maps). Drill requires definite exer- 
cises and regular practice in them, continued a sufficient length of time, in 
order to impart a kind of automatic force to the recollection. Both mind 
and body, by repetition, acquire fixed habitudes, by means of which thought 
and muscular action may be accommodated to the performance of acts 
which at first might have seemed impossible. This is the foundation 
principle of drill. 

DULL SCHOLARS, or Dullards, a class of pupils found in every 
school and class, whose perceptions are deficient in rapidity, and whose 
mental powers are sluggish. Such pupils need especially the spur of en- 
couragement, and should never be subjected to blame or derision on account 
of their slowness. Many teachers often greatly err in dealing with this 
class of pupils, applying to them such epithets as blockhead^ dolt, numh- 
skull, simpleton, dunce^ etc. They are, moreover, sometimes neglected by 



1 



EAR 95 

the teacher, who naturally prefers to give attention to those bright, preco- 
cious pupils who need but little instruction. The best powers of the 
teacher, however, are displayed in developing the latent capacities of these 
dull scholars; and very often it has been found that those who bore the 
character of dullness in school have risen to great eminence in after life. 
The great English poet and novelist, Sir Walter Scott, and the illustrious 
German chemist Liebig are often mentioned as examples of this fact. 

EAR, Cultivation of the. Recent physiological researches appear 
to leave but little reason to doubt that, at birth and for months afterward, 
the organs of the special senses exist in only a rudimentary 
When to form, and that they owe their gradual development entirely to 
menced ^^^^ external influences exerted upon them by nature and 
society. It is, therefore, not only probable, but experimentally 
demonstrable, that the education of the senses is more or less efficient 
according to the time at which it begins after birth. In the light of 
modern experience, it is considered by some extremely doubtful whether 
there is really any case of actual congenital blindness or deafness. The 
tendency to these defects, doubtless, often exists as an hereditary imper- 
fection, but is scarcely ever of such a nature as to be incurable, if 
discovered and treated properly soon after birth. Hence, except when an 
organic malformation exists, it follows that a systematic and judicious 
training of the senses, from the earliest infancy, may remedy most, if not 
all, cases of such defects as color-blindness, weakness of sight and hearing, 
etc. Such indeed is the conclusion derived from the experience gained 
in infant asylums, kindergartens, and intelligent families. This is an 
important fact, since it serves to correct the notion, so generally enter- 
tained, that good speakers and singers must be born such, and 
Limit of ^i^^j. ^i^gre ^re but few persons thus naturally endowed. There 
ear culture. ^^^ without doubt, considerable diversity in the sensuous endow- 
ments of different individuals; but, at the same time, it is impossible to 
fix a limit to the improvement of which every organ of sense is susceptible 
by continuous and proper education, and particularly by a cultivation 
carried on through several successive generations. As regards the ear, 
this may be considered as historically established; since, three centuries 
ago, there were but an exceptionally few persons who showed any ability to 
appreciate, and a still smaller number who were able to reproduce, musical 
melody and harmony. The progress of musical art among modern civilized 
nations, and particularly the diffusion of musical taste among the people, 
are striking illustrations of ear culture, since this progress could not be 
effected without an organic as well as an esthetic improvement. 

The sense of hearing is the earliest to be developed in infancy, and, at 

the approach of death, seems to be the last to be extinguished; it is also 

the last to be overcome by sleep, and the first to be aroused on 

Sense of awakening. In reaching objects at a distance, its power is 

tiearing. ^^^^ ^^ ^^^^ ^^ ^^^^^ j^ ^j^^ earliest stages of intellectual 

development, the sense of hearing performs a most important office, since 
language, the most efficient means of all education, depends upon its 
exercise. Moral education, no doubt, also begins with the genial accents 
of the maternal voice, both in speech and song, as heard by the infant; so 
that even the lullabies which soothe it to slumber constitute an agency in 



96 EDUCATION 

its development. While, therefore, loud and explosive noises may injure 
the physical organization of the ear of a child, harsh and angry tones 
will affect injuriously the development of its affections and sentiments. 
All disagreeable sensuous impressions are deeper and more durable than 
Practical those of an opposite character; and, hence when often repeated, 
sugges- they tend to destroy the capacity of the ear for the appreciation 
tions. of beautiful sounds. Otherwise, variety of sound is not detri- 
mental to the infant's ear, but on the contrary, beneficial, especially when 
the source of each sound is, at the same time, presented to the sight, or 
touch, or both these senses. From the time the infant begins to understand 
simple language, — usually after the fourth month, especially if the words 
are accompanied with mimicry or gesticulation, care should be taken to 
articulate distinctly. In families in which there is a negligence in this 
respect, it will be found that the children either never, or with very great 
difficulty, acquire a distinct articulation. It is a great error, quite common 
in some families and communities, to repress the natural vociferations of 
children, and to insist on the constant use of low tones in speech. Nature 
dictates a great deal of crying, shouting, etc., in order that the lungs and 
vocal organs may be fully developed; but, of course, all excess should be 
restrained, since the habit of yelling and shouting in the open air will not 
only injure the delicate organs of the voice, but will have a bad effect upon 
the moral development of the child, besides incapacitating him for the 
perception and appreciation of those delicate distinctions of sound upon 
which musical harmony and melody depend. (See Senses, Education of.) 
EDUCATION" (Lat. educaiio), a general and comprehensive term, 
including in its signification every thing that pertains to the bringing up 
of children, and the operation of influences and agencies designed 
Definition. ^^ stimulate and direct the development of the faculties of youth 
by training and instruction, and thus to control the formation of their 
character. Hence, education has been divided into several departments, 
according to the class of faculties to the development and improvement of 
which it is directed, including (1) Physical Education (q. v.), 
^^^tion^^' ^^ *^^ education of the bodily powers; (2) Intellectual Educa- 
tion (q. v.), that of the mind or intellect; (3) Moral Education 
(q. v.), — of the propensities, sentiments, will, and conscience; (4) Esthetic 
Education, — of the taste, musical, artistic, or literary, that is, comprehend- 
ing the sphere of the imagination (see Esthetic Culture); and (.5) Re- 
ligious or Spiritual Education, — of the religious sentiments, the spiritual 
instincts; that is, those which concern the soul as an immortal essence, and 
its relations to the Infinite Spirit. (See Religious Education.) 

Education is also distinguished into home or domestic education, and 
public or common-school ec^aca^io?!, or, considered as a means for the general 
enlightenment of i\\Q-^QO^\% popular education; also into private education, 
that is, supported by private funds, and national education, — provided 
for by the state. 

School education, generally called instruction, on account of the more 
limited character of its scope and the sphere of its operations, is distin- 
guished, according to its grade, into (1) primary instruction, 
education *^^^^ ^^' *^® instruction given in elementary schools (such as the 
common schools, — the primary schools of cities representing only 



EDUCATION 97 

a lower subdivision of primary instruction); (2) secondary instruction,— 
as given in academies and high schools (middle schools); (3) superior iri' 
structw7i, — as given in colleges and universities; (4) special instruction, — 
as of the blind, the deaf and dumb, and the imbecile; (5) prof essionnl and 
technical instruction, — as in art schools, law schools, medical schools, 
military schools, theological seminaries, schools of architecture, etc. 

Education is to be carefully distinguished from instruction, the latter 
being only a subordinate part of the great schemes of controlling and 
Instribc- guiding the development of a human beingi To this department 
tion. of education the term didactics (from the Greek word diddaKeiVy 
to teach) is often applied. (See Didactics and Instruction.) Instruction 
is addressed to the intellect or understanding; while education compre- 
hends the whole nature of man and the various agencies by means of 
which, in its formative state, it may be effected. Its primary object is to 
form the character either by stimulating its development in the normal 
direction, or correcting tendencies to morbid growth. In respect to the 
scientific principles by which its practical operations should be guided, 
education is a science; in the relation to the proper mode of performing 
those operations so as to render them as effective as possible, it is an art. 
The science of education is a very complex one, inasmuch as its prin- 
ciples must be drawn from many different departments of science; super- 
added to which, as its own peculiar sphere of investigation, 
^d^^%o ^l^^re is the great body of truths which concern the growth and 
development of mind and body, and which especially constitute 
the theory of education, or pedagogics, as sometimes called. A distinction 
is now plainly drawn in the minds of professional educationists between 
the ry^rfand the new education, the former referring to the system 
Ihe old Qf verbal memorizing, of which there are so many relics at the 
edacaiion. Present time; and the latter, to the development system {q. v.), 
by wliich a constant appeal is made to the intelligence of the 
child, in the exercise of its observing and conceptive faculties. Hence the 
term New Education is often applied to Froebels kindergarten. A recent 
writer remarks : — " The old education was painful and repulsive, the new 
education inspires voluntary and glad effort. Adaptation and interest are 
cardinal. The old education consisted largely of unmeaning task-work, 
which tended to discourage and repress. The new education leads the 
pupil to discover and apply, and inspires boundless enthusiasm". Bald- 
win, Art of School Mana'jement (1881). 

EDUCATION", Theory of. The word education is derived from 

the Latin verb educo which is properly used to designate the sustenance 

and care bestowed by a nurse on a child; and it is, no doubt, 

Meaning connected etymologically with the Latin verb edilco, to lead 

^3^^ ^aUon ^^^'' ^^^ ^* ^^^^^ ^^^ *^^^ literal sense, and it is extremely un- 
e uc n. j.^^^jy ^-^^^ ^^^ Romans connected the idea of drawing out with 
that of educatio. In order to get a true idea of education, we must look 
at the circumstances of the case. We proceed by way of analogy. We 
Illustra- know in regard to the seed of a plant that it contains a peculiar 
lion. and special power within it. Place it in the proper soil, 
with the proper temperature, and it will burst forth into active life. 
It will gather from earth and air the means of support and increase. It 



98 EDUCATION 

will fashion the elements which it lays hold of into a definite shape, and it 
will pass through various stages of progress until it withers away, leaving, 
however, behind it the means of continuing the species. "Within certain 
limits, the plant has a definite form of its own, and its mode of life is also 
uniform; and, within these limits,. there lies a perfect form and a perfect 
life for the plant. It may not be easy to say what is that perfect form and 
perfect life, but it is plain to every observer, that it, as it were, strives after 
an ideal form and an ideal progress, to which it approximates more or less 
closely. Man is like the plant. The living power within him strives to 
attain a particular form, and to go through a particular progress, and it 
continually strives to attain an ideal of these, within certain limits. The 
difference between the plant and the man is, that the limits of his condition 
and progress are much wider, and that he can consciously form an ideal 
for himself, and strive after it. Now education, in its proper sense, is the 
deliberate effort on the part of one conscious being to clear the way so as 
to enable another to attain this perfect condition of life and this normal 
progress. It is assumed that the man naturally strives after perfection. 
It is assumed that he must move in some direction, whether forward, or 
zigzag, or backward; and the educator endeavors to keep the movement in 
the right direction. 

The word education is used in a variety of senses, connected but not 
always compatible with the true idea. Thus man is viewed as being, in his 

earliest stage, a kind of compressed mass of faculties, and 

Various education is the drawing out of these faculties. Again, every 

'^^^word ^tl^ii^g f^^-^ ^cts on man's nature is sometimes said to be educative, 

whether the result is beneficial or not. Other instances could 
be adduced of the use of the word in the vaguest manner; but by stating 
the true idea we oppose ourselves to the vague uses of the word. It is 
enough, therefore, to state first that man must be viewed, not as passive 
but as active, not as being drawn out, but as striving to act, and that no 
act is truly educative which does not help him to strive after actions that 
are becoming to his nature, or, to express it objectively, to strive after 
what is good, beautiful, or true. 

But, in thus stating the work of education in a general proposition, we 
have done very little toward explaining its true nature. Education sets 

before it an ideal. How are we to form anything like an 
The ideal, adequate conception of this ideal ? Only by a minute and 
careful study of human nature; and, therefore, every educator must 
necessarily devote a great deal of his attention to the phenomena of body 
and mind, and to man, the combination of both. The ideal is a unity, 
but it is a composite unity, made up of the perfect accomplishment of 
endless detailed actions, and we must, therefore, examine all the details 
before we can attain to a clear notion of the Avhole. 

The subject may be viewed in another light. Every portion of man is 

made or preformed for a special function or functions. Thus the eyes are 

A other "^^^® ^^^ seeing, the hands for grasping, the skin for touch. For 

mew "^^^^^ is *^^^ whole body made? For what is man, body and 

soul, made ? It is the work of the educator to help him whom 
he educates to discharge the functions for which, as man, he has been 
made or preformed. Accordingly, most of the definitions of education 



EDUCATION 59 

wliicli have been given, have been based on tlie answer to tlie question, 
•what is the chief end — the siimmimi honum — the destiny of man ? This 
was a question which occupied the attention of the ancients much, and 
Clemens Alexaucbinus has gathered together a large number of the answers 
which ancient philosophers gave to the inquiry. These are interesting to 
the educator, because they suggest different points of \iew from wliich to 
look at the problem. In more modern times, the form which the answer 
has most frequently taken is the statement that it is the work of education 
to produce, as far as it can, an equable and harmonious development of all 
the powers of man. Herbart and his school object to this way of 
^'i^. expressing the aim of education. The term poicers is apt to 
according jj^igje^d. There are no separate and special faculties in man's 
to Meroart. ^^^^^ jj^ the best psychologists admit that these faculties are 
fictions; and therefore, the aim of education must be defined apart from 
these. Herbart himself defined the aim of education to be niorality; but 
he used the word in a truly philosophical sense, in which it is not under- 
stood by the masses, and, therefore, he preferred to state the object of 
education to be, to produce a well-balanced many-sidedness of interest. 
The emphasis laid on interest has been productive of much rich fruit in 
educational investigation and experience; but, practically, Herbart 's defini- 
tion comes to the same as the other. Man is viewed as destined to a series 
of activities closely connected the one with the other. These activities may 
be in harmony with his nature, or his ideal nature, as we may call it, or 
they may be more or less aberrations from it. The business of the educator 
is to prevent the aberrations, and to help those activities which are in 
harmony. Those activitias which are in harmony find their sphere in 
nature, in man, in God. It is important that all these activities come into 
play. Man does not pursue his ideal course, if they do not come into play. 
He must be fully developed. But if his activity comes into play on these 
subjects according to the right method, his interest in them is awakened 
and becomes stronger and stronger; for all pleasure is the accompaniment 
of the vigorous discharge of some function, and all pain is the accompani- 
ment of the weak discharge or hindrance of some function. If the organ 
which discharges the function is exercised too powerfully, as may be the 
case with our bodily powers and lower mental energies, there is first intense 
pleasure; but the over-tension impairs the healthiness of the organ temp- 
orarily, or it may be permanently, and then the impaired activity is followed 
by pain. And the pleasure that may arise, may arise from the exercise of 
what we call the lower functions, when the higher are neglected. Thus the 
lazy man desires true pleasure, as far as it goes, from the vigorous exercise of 
his vital or vegetative powers. But, whatever pleasure does exist, exists 
from the efficient discharge of function, or in other words from healthy 
activities of body or of mind. This pleasure may not be consciously before 
the mind, as in the highest intellectual operations when the student does 
not feel how intense has been his enjoyment, until the enjoyment is over. 
This accompaniment of all our healthy actions is cumulative. It grows m 
degree, in proportion as the actions are repeated in a healthy or proper 
manner And, hence, our interest increases with the healthy repetition ot 
the activities on the objects. Herbart's definition becomes, therefore, 
nearly synonpnous with the other, but directs the attention to the external 



100 EDUCATION 



1' 



side of man's activity, to the objects on which the mind works. Both sides 
must be carefully considered by the educator; for, in the activity of man, 
they are invariably conjoined. The distinction between/or7?ia/ and material 
in education has to be made with great caution; and it has always to be 
remembered that form is impossible without matter, and matter impossible 
without form, that while there can be no right activity, if the mind does 
not act in a right manner, it is equally true that there can be no right 
activity, if there is not a right object for the mind to act upon. 

After having thus generally discussed the aim of education, we should 
now enter minutely into particulars, for the general is of slight use with- 

FartiGu- out the particular; but this would be to write a treatise on the 

lars. laws of the activity of the human mind, and the modes to be 

adopted by men to direct these activities aright in the young. We must, 

therefore, confine ourselves to hints which may suggest to the reader the 

subjects which deserve his careful and minute examination. 

A child gazes at an apple on a tree. AVhat are the operations of the 
child's mind ? First, we have the exercise of the bodily organ. Then the 
apple produces an impression on the child!s mind. This im- 
Phases of prgssion we call a sensation. The child feels something. Some 
change has taken place within hitn. But, if this is not the first 
impression which the apple has made on the child, we can observe that the 
sensation has attained in its complexity to three phases : First, the child 
has the feeling of pleasure in seeing the apple; second, he sees that there ia 
an object before him which he calls an apple; and, third, if, on a previous 
occasion, he has tasted apples and enjoyed them, the recollection of that 
enjoyment comes back, a desire arises within him, and he is under an im- 
pulse to make an exertion to obtain the apple. In this one instance, we 
have the various phases of man's activities. He is, first of all, a physical 
being; then he is capable of feeling, — has an emotional nature; then he is 
capable of perceiving, — has an intellectual nature; and, finally, he is capable 
of desiring, of striving after, and, thus, has a practical and moral nature. 
Though we speak of him thus as if he had four natures, he really possesses 
but one. AU the distinctions, except perhaps the first, are distinctions 
made by the mind, but the facts do not exist separately. The emotional, 
intellectual, and volitional are blended with each other in the actual human 
mind. The mind cannot exist without them. There can be no absolute 
separation of them, since they stand in the closest relation to each other. 
Yet it is essential to separate these elements in our discussion of them, for 
they may blend with each other in different degrees. The one phase may 
predominate to the injury of the others. A man may have a clear head, 
but a hard heart and a stubborn will. Another may be too emotional, 
ready to melt before the slightest distress, and yet possessing almost no 
capability or inclination te relieve the distress. The true aim of man is to 
bring out all the elements in harmonious proportion, and the work of the 
educator is to help each child to accomplish this difficult task for himself. 
The aim and end of physical education is to produce health, not 
strength in particular organs, but a general healthiness of all the organs. 
This aim is accomplished by a careful examination into the 

Sii^atim ^^t^i'6 o^ t^^ human body, an exposition of the laws of health 
■ which arise from this study, and the exhibition of the reasons 



• 



EDUCATION 101 

which ought to lead us to give all due care to the body. Intellectual educa- 
tion is based on a careful investigation into the laws which regulate 

the gradual progress of the mind from its earliest weak state of 

education. ^^^^ sensation till it reaches the power of dealing with the most 

'abstract ideas. But when we come to the education of the 

emotional nature, ^ve enter upon a more difficult sphere — one in which 

the educator has often to grope in darkness; for the emotions are 

not directly under his control, and the movements of the mind 
Education £q regard to them are hid in such secrecy, that sometimes an 
emotions. iiiA^ence which seems to us likely to produce one emotion, 

actually produces the opposite; as, for instance, efforts to beget 
love may have for their result the production of dislike. We can here 
take but a short glance at this important subject. 

The first point to which the attention of the educator may be directed 
is a general result at which he may aim. The broadest division which can 
^ be made of the feelings is into those of pleasure and those of 
andvain P^^^' ^^'^^^ niind assumes a particular attitude in consequence of 
■ its experiences of these. We shall take a case. A child per- 
forms a mental act. He does it successfully. He feels pleasure. He per- 
forms another successfully. The recollection of the past pleasure unites 
with the present feeling, and the feeling is stronger. Others thus blend 
until the child has a permanent state of feeling; or, as we may call it, a 
mood. He looks forward with hope; he expects to be successful; but he 
may fail. A failure takes place; he feels pain. The feeling of pain now 
acts antagonistically to his feeling of pleasure; and, if these painful feelings 
recur, the one set strive for the mastery over the other; and the result will 
be, that the mind will ultimately be in a bright and cheerful mood, or in 
a dark and gloomy one; it will either be full of hope or be given to despair; 
or, at the least, have a tendency to go in the one direction or the other. 
There can be no doubt that it is the business of the educator to produce 
j'jiQ the bright, cheerful, hopeful mood. This is the natural mood, 
natural if we use the word natural as expressive of the ideal after which 
mood, nature strives. This mood is the result of the successful dis- 
charge of all the functions; and it is of immense consequence for the 
child to have this mood. The mind communicates its tone to every thing 
around it; and so the cheerful mind sees good in every thing, catches the 
bright side, and strengthens all the powers; for the cheerful mind becomes 
the strong mind. Obstacles, pain, failure are sure to come; but the cheer- 
ful mind casts them all aside, rises superior to them, and, after temporary 
depression, sees again with the .same clearness, and hopes with the same 

steadfastness. The methods by which the educator can help to 
iletliods. pj.Qj^^ce this state of mind in his charge are various, and must 
all be used. First of all, he must himself be of this cheerful and hopeful 
mind. There is no direct teaching on excitation of the emotions; but they 
are often produced, in the proper circumstances, by what we may call in- 
fection. Love begets love; we catch admiration from those who have felt 
the admiration before us; and, no doubt, the sweet, gentle, loving smiles of 
a mother who is uniformly kind to her child, have a powerful influence on 
his whole destiny, a more powerful influence than they are generally be- 
lieved to exert. Secondly, health is a n^ighty agent in the earliest stages 



102 EDUCATION 

of life, before it can be expected that the mind should triumph over bodily | 
evils; and, therefore, special care should be taken to render the infant 
healthy. And, thirdly, after a certain stage has been reached, some truths 
reached by the intellect can come powerfully to the aid of the emotional 
nature; such, for instance, as a belief that the arrangements of this world are 
in favor of man, that the amount of happiness in the world is much greater 
than we may suppose, that God is working all things to wise and noble 
ends, and that man's destiny is for virtue and love. 

When we pass from this general consideration to the particular feel- 
ings, we find ourselves in a labyrinth. A feeling is a phase of mind which 
arises from the consciousness of having passed from one state 
Particular ^^^^ another; and, accordingly, no mental act can take place 
J ^^^ ' without a feeling. Hence, we have feelings connected with the 
body, feelings connected with the intellectual operations, and feelings con- 
nected with the practical and moral nature. Or we might speak of the 
feelings according to the objects which give rise to them; as those that 
arise in connection with nature, with one's own self, with man, with God. 
We select out of these, two classes of feelings that especially deserve the 
attention of the educator. The first class deserve attention principally be- 
cause they are in danger of being neglected, owing to the character of the 
present age. The educator should awaken and keep alive the 
Mystery, fggii^gg of admiration and mystery. A child naturally wonders 
and admires, and these feelings must not be allowed to die out. Moreover, 
the sense of mystery, closely connected with these, will be a source of great 
blessing to him. The practical man is apt to look on all things as definite 
and fully known; but the fact is, that nothing is completely known. We 
know neither the beginning nor the end of any thing. The smallest object 
and the largest are equally invisible to us. Our knowledge is limited by a 
boundary that lies far within the infinitesimally great and the infinitesimally 
small; and so all knowledge attained points to an infinite region the depths 
of which we have not sounded. A consciousness of this is closely con- 
nected with a humble spirit, and true humility generally allies itself with 
love. The second class of feelings is that which relates to the beautiful. 
• The sense of the beautiful is the power to feel the loveliness of 
heauUful. symmetry, of proportion, of harmony. This poAver is to be 
' acquired only by the exercise of it. The symmetry and loveliness 
exist in nature. They are calculated to produce an effect on the soul of 
man, but the soul of man must be brought into contact with them, before 
it can feel them. Therefore, in regard to the cultivation of the feeling for 
the beautiful, the one essential condition is, that beautiful objects be placed 
before the person in whom the sense is to be awakened and strengthened, 
and that they be placed frequently and at proper intervals; because the 
sense of the beautiful is awakened only by slow degrees, and it expands, 
passing from the external and simple to the harmonies which prevail 
amidst the grandest spheres of thought and intelligent existences. But 
it can be brought before the pupil in every form at an early stage, 
in beautiful pictures, in beautiful rooms, in beautiful landscapes, in order, 
in gentleness of tone, in noble action, and in many other ways, so 
as to induce within himself a love of all that is orderly, harmonious, and 
peaceful. 



EDUCATION 103 

Two cautions may be specially urged in connection with the cultivation 
of the feelings. The first is, that it is possible to render a human being 

Cautions t^^.^^^^^^^Y^' ~ 'to give feehng too great a preponderance in the 
individuality of the person educated. Such a person becomes 
sentimental, is easily moved to joy or tears, is sympathetic in the highest 
degree, but the sympathy does not lead to action. The educator has to 
take care that every train of feeling be strengthened and guided aright by 
clear and well-reasoned convictions, and be followed by appropriate action. 
The second danger is, that the feeling of self may become so strong as to 
harden every other. Naturally, every one bestows a great deal of attention 
on himself, and there is a tendency to feel only when the circumstances 
relate to one's self. Here, again, what has to be done is, to prevent the 
minds being occupied too much with self, and to interest it in the thoughts 
and circumstances of others. Both these cautions point to the next 
division of the sphere of education — that of the will or of the practical 

2he wiU V^^^^^^- ^^^^ exercise of these is closely connected with the 
intellect and the feelings, and indeed ordinarily results from 
them. Man is naturally a striving or desiring being. He is a force, and 
by a force we mean something that strives to exert itself. Accordingly 
man's first act is an effort. And the powers which he at any time possesses 
strive for spheres of action. But these spheres are in the main determined 
by the results of the action of his intellect and the motive power of the 
feelings. A child does something which gives him pleasure. He has 
finished the action. He turns to something else. What remains of the 
previous action? A recollection of something pleasant; but the recollection 
of something that is pleasant excites the desire to enjoy it again. Thus 
arise desires in the mind; and as these desires arise again and again in 
connection with objects belonging to separate classes, groups of desires or 
inclinations arise, and we call these groups by general names, such as the 
love of money, the love of honor, the love of fame. These desires grow in 
intensity according to the amount of time during which they are allowed 
to continue in the mind, and the amount of space they are allowed to 
occupy in it. Add to this fact that we naturally put a value on the 
things which we desire, and regard some as higher than others, and we 
enter the region of morals. Two or three functions of mind lie before us 
which we are able to discharge at the time. We weigh these functions in 
the balance. We pronounce one of a higher nature than the others. This 
is the one which we feel bound to perform. Thus the function of the eye 
is a nobler one than that of the nose or the taste; and, hence, the educator 
who trains the child to see is performing a nobler function than he who 
indulges a child's taste for sweets. All functions may be necessary, but 
each must have its own place in a well-arranged and systematic order of 
gradation. 

The first essential, then, to a good practical training is to impress on 

the pupil the true value of all actions and things. He is enabled to attain 

to this only by having a clear intellect and a right state of 

action ^^^^^^^o' ^^d' therefore, it cannot be too strongly urged, that a 

thorough intellectual education is an important element in the 

attainment of a sound moral character. But, besides this, we learn to act 

by acting. There is a natural instinct to act, and this instinct must not 



104 EDUCATION 

be resisted or blunted. It is by one action that we rise to the power of 
doing a greater. Here the same kind of fiction as that which we have 
noticed in the case of the mental faculties is apt to mislead. Man is often 
spoken of as possessing a will; but man has not one will, but many wills. 
The word wUL is used to denote the complicated power which man 
possesses, through his original faculties and the exercise of them, to will 
for the future. But, if this be the case, the strength of the power to will 
in any particular case depends upon the previous exercise which the mind 
has had in willing similar actions; and so a man may have a strong will in 
one direction, and a weak will in another. Hence, the educator must take 
care to bring into activity the willing power of his pupil in as many 
directions as he can, without impairing his strength of will in the most 
important directions. Moreover, in action, we are influenced strongly by 
the action of others, just as in feeling by the feeling of others. The teacher 
who wishes to lead his pupils to acion, must himself act first. The 
influence of example is all-powerful in this matter. And, finally, as 
willing depends first upon fixing an appropriate aim, and, secondly, on 
selecting the right means, the pupil must be trained, in all cases, to 
use the right means. The clear insight in'o the true value of actions, 
that is, into the aims which should guide us, may be of comparatively 

little use, if we have nob the good sense to employ suitable 
Quidmce '^'^^'^^ ^^^ ^^^ purposes. These are the general rules which 

regulate practical education. It would be impossible in an 
article like this to go into the particular phenomena which must be 
investigated before the educator can have a proper grasp of the subject. 
Just as in the case of the feelings, desires and inclinations arise in 
connection with all the activities of man^ — with the physical, the in- 
tellectual, the emotional, and the practical forms of man's energy; and 
they embrace the same extent of objects. They connect themselves with 
nature, with one's own self, with other men, with God. But, they have 
wider ramifications, and a more poteab influence than the feelings, and 
open up, therefore, a wider field for investigation; and, in this subject, 
aberrations demand the closest attention. The educator has continually 
to guard against the formation and strengthening of inclinations which 
imperil the well-being of the individual and the race. 

Lastly, there is religious education, embracing within it intellectual, 
emotional, and moral aspects. Religion may be said to arise in a feel- 
ReH i 1 ^^°' • ^^ ^^?^ ^^^ weakness and littleness. We feel that we 
education. ^^^ lioiited in power, in knowledge, in vital energy. We feel 

surrounded, on every hand, by powers that are stronger than 
we are, and hemmed in by irresistible forces. If this, however, were 
the only feeling, despair would lay hold of us. But, we come to feel 
that the irresistible forces are not antagonistic to us, that we can come 
into harmonious relations with the supernatural, that, to use the Christian 
mode of thought, we can trust in a God of justice and love. It is 
when we gain this feeling of trust that we attain to a religion. But, 
a religion advances beyond the mere feeling; it sets down God or gods, 
as possessing a certain character, and. therefore, enjoining a certain kind 
of worship. Especially does the Christian religion present definite con- 
ceptions as to the character of God, and enjoin, as the first condition 



ELABORATIVE FxVCULTY — ELOCUTION 105 

of woi'ship and as the great law of life, love to God and love to man 
practically exhibited. The Christian religion thus brings into play the 
feelings as the foundation of religion, the intellectual powers in appre- 
hending its great truths, and the inclinations and practical powers in 
carrying them out. 

The subject of education is discussed in a great variety of treatises. 
The most satisfactory discussion, in our opinion, is contained in the 
works of Herbart and Beneke. Herbart's educational writings 
Literature. -^^^^ -^^^^ collected and published recently in two volumes 
(Leipsic, 1873 — 1875) under the editorship of Otto V/illmann. Beneke's 
great work on the subject is Erzieliungs- und Unierrichtslehre (2 vols., 
third echtion, Berlin, 18G4). The first volume is devoted to Education, 
the second to Instruction. Of the followers of Herbart, Ziller's works 
deserve special mention; and of those of Beneke, the works of Littes 
and Dressier. The educator will also derive much good from the study 
of the best works on psychology. Both Herbart and Beneke have written 
hand-books of psychology; and, in English, special mention, may be made 
of the writing-s of Sir "\Villiam Hamilton, Dr. Morell, Prof. Bain, and Mr. 
Herbert Spencer, the last of whom has a work specially devoted to edu- 
cation {Education: Intellectual, 3loral, and Physical). For other refer- 
ences, see Cyclopaedia of Education. 

ELABORATIVE FACULTY, a term often used, at the present 
time, to indicate that function of the mind by which it employs the 
materials supplied by sensation, perception, conception, and consciousness 
(or the inner sense), and builds them up into systems or chains of thought 
and reasoning. The different processes that, according to this nomenclature, 
are elaborative, are comparison, abstraction, generalization, judgment, and 
reasoning. To these particular processes the term thought is now often 
restricted, instead of being, as formerly, applied indifferently to every 
intellectual operation. Dr. Hopkins, in An Outline Study of Man (N. Y., 
1876), thus describes this faculty and its functions: "The processes of the 
elaborative faculty hold the same relation to the materials brought into 
the mind that the processes of building and repairing hold to the materials 
which are brought into the body. The building and repairing systems take 
hold of that which is brought into the system and elaborate it; they 
transform it, and make of it another thing. The elaborative system does 
the same thing in the mind. It takes the material given by the presenta- 
tive faculty [sensation, perception, etc.], and performs the operations of 
comparison, abstraction, etc." Dr. Porter, in The Human Intellect (N. Y., 
1869), thus defines the office of the elaborative faculty: ''The thinking 
power has been treated as twofold, and been subdivided into two: the 
elaborative faculty, as performing the processes, and the regulative^ as 
furnishing the rules, or more properly as prescribing the sphere and 
possibihty of thought. These are named also the dianoeiic and the noetic 
faculty. By some writers they are distinguished as the understanding and 
reason, in a usage suggested by Kant, but deviating materially from his 
own. Milton and others call them the discursive and instinctive reason". 
(See Intellectual Education.) 

ELOCUTION, the utterance or expression of thought in reading and 
speaking, is an important part of a scholastic education, because of the 



lOG EMPIRICAL METHODS — EMOTIONS 

constant need of sucli vocal utterance in tlie ordinary circumstances of 
both private and public life. The departments into which this subject 
naturally divides itself are the following: (1) Articulation, or the proper 
and distinct enunciation of the elementary sounds as usually combined in 
words; (2) Pronunciation, as dependent upon a knowledge of the various 
sounds represented by letters and their diverse combinations in words, and 
upon accentuation; (3) Emphasis, or the placing of a stress of the voice 
upon a particular word or words of a sentence, so as to bring out the 
meaning fully, and to give life and spirit to the delivery; (4) Voice inflec- 
tions, — upward, downward, or waved, as a means of giving a partic- 
ular significance to words or sentences, and as auxiliary to emphasis; 
(5) Tones, or those variations of the voice in pitch, force, and quality, by 
which it is modulated to the expression of particular sentiments and emo- 
tions. (See Reading, and Yoice, Culture of.) 

EMPIRICAL METHODS, those methods of instruction or education 
which are based not on theoretical principles, but on the effects of practical 
. operations as learned by experience. Hence the term (from 
Definition, q^.^ t/u-eipia, experience). AVhen the application of scientific 
methods, or those derived from general principles, is possible, the use of 
empirical methods becomes a cause of reproach, and is to be condemned. 
The science of education is, however, too unsettled and incomplete to 
justify such condemnation, except to a limited extent. Methods that have 

stood the test of actual experiment, and have proved effective, 
L ility. g^j,g j^q|. ^q |_^g discarded merely because the principle underlying 
them is not understood, or because tliey seem to contradict some favorite 
theory. Such exi)erimental processes are the source of much valuable ex- 
perience, and the facts thus obtained should be generalized so as to supply 
additional scientific principles, or correct those already deduced. In this 
way, the j^ractical experience of educators may be employed to improve 
and extend the science of education. On the other hand, it is undoubtedly 

true that teachers are too apt to follow empirical methods 

Not to he blindly, without concerning themselves with principles. The 

blindlv. complaint is often and justly made that education is not 

scientific; and, that, consequently old methods and processes are 
often employed, when the circumstances render them entirely inapplicable. 
This would naturally be the result of adhering to empirical methods, since 
principles alone can guide to a just discrimination as toj^ractical processes. 
„ . . , The "rule of thumb"' may answer when the operator is confined 
needed. *^ ^ very narrow sphere of his art, and is never obliged to depart 

from it; but it is entirely inadequate to grapple with the difficul- 
ties presented in a varied and enlarged sphere of practical effort, whatever 
the art or profession may be. This is particularly true of education, since 
the elements with which it has to deal are as innumerable in their 
combinations as the phases of human character. In proportion as educa- 
tion emerges from this condition of empiricism, and assumes a settled 
scientific status, its practical operations will rise to the dignity of a pro- 
fession, and those engaged in it will receive the consideration which apper- 
tains to the professional character. 

EMOTIONS are those conditions of the mind in which the sensibility 
is excited, so as to act upon the will, and with the tendency to outward 



EMULATION 107 

manifestation in bodily acts. The diiference between emotions and pas- 
sions is rather quantitative than qualitative; the former, while character- 
Emoiions i^ed by an intensity of feeling, still leave a considerable scope 
and for the exercise of reason and judgment; the latter, for the time 
passions.^ being, disturb the equilibrium of self-consciousness, and produce 
a condition in which the mind is overmastered and controlled by the 
particular feeling, and la borne along by its force, helpless and suffering 
(hence the name passion, meaning suffering). Of this, we have illustrations 
in the effects of extreme anger, love, hatred, or revenge. Emotions are 
_ ^. ^ also to be distinguished from se>?z'meK^s, the latter beins; to a 
c "^-greater extent based on mental discrmnnations, and more steady 
and durable in their nature. Thus, he who has cultivated the sentiment 
of patriotism, cannot but feel an emotion of joy at a victory gained by his 
country over her enemies. Emotions are likewise to be distinguished from 
feeliiigs, or the immediate sensations of the physical organism, 
ee ings. giving rise to mental perceptions, or to bodily pleasure or pain. 
The nature of children is more emotional than that of grown persons, be- 
cause the restraining principle of the mind is less active, and the sensibility 
more fresh and more acute. This is particularly true of certain kinds of 
temperament and mental constitution. The office of education is to rec- 
ognize every principle of the human being, and to employ it or appeal to 
it in the educative processes. An emotional nature should be cherished; 
inasmuch as one who is deficient in this respect is apt to be cold, selfish, 
and unsocial. The emotions are not only compatible with, but 
Culture necessary to, the best elements of man's moral nature; and the 
emotions educator should strive to connect them with moral motives. 
The attempt to awaken emotion in the minds of children by 
mere sentimentality is futile and ridiculous. Stirring stories of heroism, 
endurance, patriotism, generosity, self-denial, filial affection, etc. will awak- 
en corresponding emotions; and when properly applied constitute a means 
of emotional culture; but youth should, as far as possible, be permitted to 
yield to the natural emotions to which the ordinary circumstances of their 
lives give rise; they should witness emotion in others, under restraint, but 
still expressed; and by imitation, as well as instinctive impulse, be habitu- 
ated to ardor in their feelings toward all that is beautiful, true, and good 
in natural objects, historical incidents, or the conduct of those with whom 
they meet in their daily lives. 

EMULATION" (Lat. cemulatio, from cEinulus, a rival), the desire to 
excel, is a principle of action which has had a very general application in 
. practical education, being one of the most common incentives 
ediwation ^^^^ught to bear upon children and youth to induce exertion in 
' study. The various systems of merit marks, prizes, etc., are 
based upon this principle, inasmuch as they definitely recognize and reward 
isuperiority or excellence. 

Scarcely any subject has been more thorouglily discussed than the 

propriety of resorting to emulation as a school incentive. On the one 

hand, it has been held that the human mind, particularly in its 

for^iisuse i^^^'^^^^^^e state, needs the stimulus of secondary motives to 

* awaken its dormant energies, especially for the accomplishment 

of tasks in which it takes only an imperfect interest. Naturally, children 



108 ENCOURAGEMENT 

are but little prone to study, their fondness being ratber for active sports 
and amusements: and, hence, the awakening of an interest in the studies 
themselves, while an important object of the teacher's efforts, cannot be 
depended upon to incite the pupil to continuous industry. While there 
are some minds and temperaments that feel an almost innate desire for 
the acquisition of knowledge, and hence a love of study, on the other 
hand, the great majority of children have no such desire until it is 
engendered by the force of secondary motives, that is, by holding out 
inducements to study based upon the attainment of things in which they 
do take an interest. All cliildren are, more or less, prone to emulation; 
they love to excel others, particularly in things that bring commendation 
and honor, in this respect resembling those of maturer years; for this prin- 
ciple of action has been recognized as leading to eminence in every 
department of human effort. Hence, in schools and colleges, 
Cautions, emulation is an important and valuable incentive which the 
educator may, by no means, cast aside. Of course, it is not to be allowed 
to degenerate into personal strife, animosity, or jealousy; nor is it to be 
indulged in such a manner as to obliterate the pupil's real interest in the 
study pursued. It is always to be impressed upon the student's mind that 
he is working in a good cause, and that he should strive to attain to the 
highest possible degree of excellence in it, — higher, if he can, than that 
which he sees has been attained by any of his fellow students. Thus what 
others achieve becomes the measure of what can be done by him if he 
exerts himself to the utmost, and also the standard beyond which he is to 
go in order to obtain the prize of excellence. For a fuller treatment of 
this subject see Cyclopcedia of Education. 

EN'COXJB.AG-EMEN'T, as an educational incentive, is of indispensable 

importance in dealing with a certain class of minds, particularly with those 

Impor- characterized by an excess of caution, timidity, and diffidence. 

tance. Many teachers repress the exertions of their pupils by failing to 
discern their true character, so as to be able to ascertain the amount of 
effort they may have put forth in order to accomplish an assigned task, or 
to avoid a temptation to do wrong. Adopting an arbitrary standard, they 
sometimes condemn alike all who fail to attain it, making no allowance 
for diversity of talent, opportunity, or the power of will; whereas the true 
test of a pupil's merit is not the accomplishment of the task, but the 
exertion put forth and the self-control exercised in the endeavor to comply 
with the teacher's precepts or directions. Encouragement consists in 
adjusting the standard of success to the peculiar circumstances 
^^""ued^ and traits of the pupil. If the latter is dull, indolent, self- 

^^ * indulgent, feeble in will, and yielding easily to temptation the 
educator who recognizes these traits, accepts with satisfaction the feeblest 
efforts at amendment which he sees have been put forth, and by judicious 
commendation induces stronger and morepesistent ones, until the founda- 
tion of moral or intellectual strength has been safely laid. Timid children 
must be encouraged to lay aside their fears by being shown that they are 
groundless. They must not be repressed by harsh words of censure, or by 
those forms of punishment which should be the exclusive penalty of willful 
wrong-doing. On the contrary, they should be made to feel that, even if 
they have failed, they have won their teacher's approving smiles by their 



ENGLISH 109 

honest efforts. All the various forms of encouragement, within the power 
of a teacher of skill and experience, will find occasions for employment in 
dealing with the endless diversities of character presented by the pupils of 
a large class or school. Some minds, on the other hand, need rather urging 
than gentle encouragement; and the latter, in the form of excessive praise, 
to t, dented pupils is often a means of flattering their vanity, and thus 
operates as a kind of moral poison, destroying the force of every true 
stimulus to activity. 

ENGLISH, the Study of. The mother-tongue has peculiar rela- 
tions to education. Language has a twofold nature, — on the one side, 
Belaiions "voice, on the other, thought. Early thought is almost all stimu- 
io educa- lated, guided, and supported by the mother-tongue. All early ac- 

tion, quisition of knowledge may be regarded as the study of the 
mother-tongue; and, even in civilized nations, few persons ever advance 
beyond the knowledge stored up for them in their native speech. The 
mother-speech is also the means of communicating with others, and of in- 
fluencing them; so that the ^tudy of it as an art includes the study of rhet- 
oric and oratory, and of the art of poetry. 

It would seem then that there are four chief direct uses in studying 

English: (1) To understand what is spoken or written in that language; 

(2) To speak it well; (3) To write it well; and (4) To master 

t>ses. English literature. And there are three remoter ends: (1) To 
master the language scientifically; (2) To acquire the knowledge of lan- 
guage in general; and (3) General culture. 

Early study ^ in infant schools, kindergartens, and primary schools. 

— The meaning of words h the first thing children learn of languages. 

The names of a few familiar objects and acts are repeated in connection 

. with the objects and the acts themselves so often, that the infant's 

^^wat-xl^ thought passes promptly from the sound to the thing. Thus, 

* papa, mamma, kiss, laugh, make the child think of the person 

or act before it can speak any words. Many words are also attached to 

thoughts by being often heard connected with other words in discourse. Such 

knowledge, caught by the child rather than taught to it, is for the most part 

very indefinite and inexact, but no part of education is more important. 

The objects named should be objects worthy of thought. Good and 
bad qualities should be marked by such tones and manner as will give 
tbeir names correct and powerful associations. The means of 
'^olnects''^ expressing the affections should be carefully taught. In the 
' kindergarten or other infant school, care should be methodically 
taken to teach the words which accurately name the objects and processes 
that the children learn; unnamed objects and processes, however amusing 
or ingenious, enter little into thought and contribute little to culture. A 
leading purpose in all object teaching should be to give valuable ideas; but 
that is the same as giving familiarity with good words. Teachers of infant 
schools need good books, containing classified lists of important words, 
with directions how to teach them by means of well-chosen object lessons, 
and amusing occupations. (See Kindergarten, and Object Teaching.) 
For children of a larger growth, we have a great number of Spellers and 
JDefinprs, and small dictionaries which teach the meaning of English words. 
The latter should be constantly used. 



110 ENGLISH 

The study of meauings in such manuals is, however, of little worth, 
unless supplemented by object teaching on the one hand, and by the study 

of discourse on the other. Manuals of object teaching arranged 
Object £j^j. ^j^g purpose are wanting. Object teachers often contrast the 

study of words with the study of things, and condemn the study 
of words, instead of teaching them through their exercises. There are 
many books made up of progressive selections of discourse, intended to in- 
troduce young pupils to words. Most Primers and Readers attempt some- 
thing in this way, and some are skillfully prepared with notes and exercises 
for this purpose. 

To speak well requires a knowledge of the meanings of words and of 
the combinations in which they are actually used, of the meanings and uses 

of grammatical prefixes and suffixes, and of the exact sounds 

How to which are made by good speakers. Speaking must go on at a 

cultivate certain speed; and, therefore, thoughts, words, and the movements 

speaking, of ^lie vocal organs must be closely associated, so as to follow 

one another without effort and with great rapidity. Much 
practice in speaking is necessary in order to speak well; and, in general, 
practice in the very kind of speaking in which the excellence is desired. 
In the early stages of education, this must be almost wholly imitative 
practice. Children catch and use the sounds and forms which make the 
liveliest impression on them, and which they hear oftenest; to use a form 
or sound once, makes it most likely to occur to the mind again. Teachers 
should, therefore, train by inducing imitation of their own speech. Exer- 
cises may be used in repeating after the teacher the elementary sounds, 
and afterwards difficult words, and then familiar dialogues, and finally 
passages of poetry, or elevated prose, which the teacher likes and can 
repeat with feeling. Incorrect articulation and bad grammar should be 
constantly corrected, not by repeating and caricaturing what is faulty but 
by substituting the correct expression. Children should also be encouraged 
to talk, at proper times, to repeat the explanations of the teacher, not 
verbatim throughout, but yet with a constant, close, and correct use of 
the technical terms or important words; nor is it unscientific to commit 
to memory formulas of permanent importance, to be fully comprehended 
afterwards; such as the multiplication table, catechisms of moral and 
religious truth, and noble utterances which it does men good to have fast 
in the memory. The youth should be led on by language faster and 
farther than his own thoughts could have gone alone. Practice of this 
kind will naturally go along with reading. 

Learning to read should begin early. The monstrous spelling of the 
English language makes this much more difficult than to learn to read 

German; and teaching the names of the letters, and the sounds 
Methods. ^^ ^^^ syllables as if made up of them, has a mischievous effect 
on the reason of the learners. Several methods are used in our schools 
to overcome the difficulties. The word-method (q. v.) is one. In this, 
children are taught to recognize words as wholes before learning the 
letters. In skillfully prepared books, with pictorial illustrations, children 
learn to read very rapidly by this method, but not so accurately; and it is 
very hard to teach them to spell. Skillful teachers will use a judicious 
combination of the two methods. Books are also prepared with an 



ENGLISH in 

alphabet in which each letter has always the same sound, a proper phonetic 
alphabet, and with classified examples of words, and reading extracts, spelt 
in the phonetic alphabet wholly at first, and gradually ^passing to our 
standard spelling. These have been used for some years in New York 
Boston, St. Louis, and elsewhere, and are reported to save one half of the 
time usually devoted to learning to read. There is now an active movement 
for the reform of our spellin^f w^hich it may be hoped will save the next 
generation much time and toil. (See Orthogkaphy, and Phonetics.) Books 

of this kind are Leigh's edition of various elementary reading- 
nooKs. i^Qoij-s. also Davis's American Primer, Douai's National 
Phonetic Primer, Loxgley's American Phonetic Primer, Sheldon's New 
Phonetic Primer, Shearer's Combination Speller, Yickroy's Phonetic 
First Reader. Primary cards and charts to aid in this early instruction 
are to be had in good variety. Practice in writing is one of the best aids 
in learning to read and spell, and hence, copying choice extracts, and then 
writing them down from memory, is quite useful. Soon after lessons in 
penmanship begin, grammar should be taken up. 

Grammar is often used as a name for the whole science of language 
and the art of using it; but by masters of the science of language, it is now 

confined to the classification of words into parts of speech, 
Lrrammar. according to their uses in discourse, the description and exposi- 
tion of the changes of form called inflections, and the uses of these in the 
correct construction of sentences. There would be some advanta^^e in 
dropping the old traditional definitions, which lead teachers and pupils to 
expect that the study of English grammar will make them able to speak 
and write the English language correctly. It is only one of the heljDS to 
correctness in speaking and writing. 1'he attempt by makers of school 
grammars and by teachers to do too much is one reason why the study is 
so much neglected and abused. Descriptive grammar consists of defini- 
tions of the parts of speech, paradigms, and rules of syntax. "SYith children, 
a careful selection of simple and typical matter should be made, just as in 
botany or in any other science. This matter should consist of definitions 
and rules, stated in accurate scientific language, but simply and briefly; 
and of selections of words and sentences, also simple and clear, and suited 
to illustrate the definitions and rules. 1'his matter should be managed by 
the teacher so as to use mere verbal memory as little as possible, and to 
train the pupil to see. hear, and think as much as possible. The definitions 
and the rules should be learned like rules in arithmetic, but the main work 
should be the application of them to examples. The scholar should every 
day hand in written grammar work on the slate or on paper, like sums in 
arithmetic; and the preparation and explanation of this work should be 
the main gi^ammar lesson in the early years. This method needs some 
system of notation by which any sentence may be put on paper or on the 
blackboard with its words so designated by signs, or by an arrangement 
in diagrams, that the analysis and parsing of it may be made plain to the 
eye. Such systems are found in several books. A considerable number 
of our best teachers use substantially this method, many of them, without 
a book, dictating, day by day, definitions which the pupils are to remember, 
and giving out words and sentences to be classified and analyzed, also 
proposing trials in collecting and inventing words and sentences of the 



112 ENGLISH LITERATURE 

kind to be studied. Books are often wholly condemned by these teachers, 
who collect, year by year, in their own note-books, or memories, a store of 
happy questions and examples, as well as carefully considered definitions 
and rules; and it would obviously be a great help to young teachers, as 
well as to pupils, to get a good note-book of this kind, neatly printed, and 
there are some books for beginners which are, in substance, such note- 
books. For a full treatment of this subject, with directions as to advanced 
instruction, see Cyclopcedia of Education. 

ENGLISH LITERATURE. This is a very important, but an 
enormously extensive subject for school instruction. The whole cycle of 
literature is no more to be known by one person than the whole circle of 
the sciences, still less by young people at school. The impossibility of 
Questions achieving the whole task being seen, two questions at once arise: 
to bedis- (I) What shall we teach and what leave untaught ? and (2) How 
cussed, shall we teach it ? 
In attempting to answer the first of these questions, we can find some 
guidance from analogy; and the school subject which appears, in its vast 
. size and the enormous contents of its wealth, to have the closest 
beavodld resemblance to literature is the subject of geography. Now, in 
' geography, we do not burden the attention and overload the 
memory of our pupils with the infinite number of names of small towns, 
insignificant rivers, diminutive lakes, and unimportant headlands; but we 
take only the most prominent and, as it were, the central features of the 
world, and round these we group the knowledge which is intended to abide 
with the pupil, and to serve as a nucleus for his subsequent accumulations. 
In the same way, there are certain names which the sifting of time has 
caused to stand out with always increasing clearness; there are certain 
books which have been, and which continue to \)Q, forces in the develop- 
ment of civilized humanity; and it is with these authors and with these 
books that the teacher should make the pupil acquainted. Thus stated, 
the path seems to be plain — so plain that no good teacher can miss it. 
But there are two dangers — two besetting sins, which await the teacher 
in his attempts toward the systematic treatment of a subject so large; and 
Encyclo- ^bese are the vices of encyclopcedism and abridgment. Looked 
pcedism at more closely, both these vices are seen to be only two sides of 
andd')ridg- the same central error — an error which pervades all kinds of 
i^^ni' teaching, and which is, indeed, the most prevalent educational 
error of the present day. By encyclopcedism,!^ meant the desire to include 
too many facts — and, in the present instance, too many authors — within 
the range of the pupil's mental vision; and the consequence is a pressure 
which results in an ahridgment of the closest kind — an abridgment in 
which nothing is said of — no facts are given about — the author, but when 
he was born, and when he died, and the name of his best-known book. It 
is plain that such knowledge is no knowledge at all, and is of no more value 
than an acquaintance with the street directory. The desire to teach too 
much ends in achieving too little; the attempt to learn everything results 
in nothing. Besides, the pupil must have a living and interior knowledge 
of English literature, and not a dead and external acquaintance with its 
mere husk, appendages, and circumstances; and the question which presses 
upon the teacher is therefore: How is this to be done ? Before answering 



ENGLISH LITERATURE 113 

this question, the teacher must have settled with himself what is to be 
done. 

(1 ) Let us suppose that, seeing the impossibility of embracing all the 
details of so large a field, he has resolved upon making a selection of the 

best writers in prose and verse in each epoch. Round each of 
^^thors^^^^^^ he will then collect the most able of his contemporaries, 

and explain to his class their relations and the influence which 
each had upon the other, and which the requirements and spirit of the 
period had upon them all. The teacher will then, probably, select Chaucer 

— as the type of the chivalric period of l^.nglish Literature; Mandeville 

— as the " Father of English Prose"; Speyiser — as the richest poet of the 
Elizabethan era; Shakespeare — as the greatest dramatist of the period 
when the drama was at its highest; Hooker — as the type of the ornate 
and elaborate prose style of the sixteenth century; Bacon — as th- most 
compact a.nd thoughtful English essayist; Milfmt — as the poet of the Ref- 
ormation, and the master of the most sublime rhythms in the language, 
and in his prose works the most elaborate of sentence-makers; Butler (in 
parts) — as the antipode of Milton; Jeremy Taylor — as the sweetest prose- 
writer of the seventeenth century; Bryden — as the herald of a new and 
more "popular" style; Pope — as the culmination of the most polished, 
clear-cut, and sparkling English; Swift — as the most powerful intellect of 
his time; JohnsoJi — as the representative of the massive common-sense of 
his country, too ponderously, though characteristically, expressed; Gold- 
smith— a.s the most charming writer of his generation; Burke — as the 
most brilliant rhetorician that the modern world has seen; Cowper — as 
the transition and the link between the age of Pope and the nineteenth 
century; Wordsworth — as the dawn and the bright shining of the new 
day of B]nglish literature, and Be Quincey — as the most wonderful prose- 
writer of the nineteenth century. 

(2) But it is evident that all the works of these writers cannot be read 
in school; and a selection from them is, therefore, necessary. Here again 

common repute comes to our aid, and maps out our course for 
Selection of .^^ In Chaucer, we should probably find it sufRcient to read 
^°' ^' the Prologue, or the Knighies Tale, or the Man ofLavces Tale; 
in Mandeville, a few chapters of his Travels; m Spenser, a book or two of 
the Faerie Queene; in Shakespeare, one or two plays, such as the Mfrchant 
Of Venice, or King Lear [Hamlet is too difficult and super-subtle, while the 
subject of Othello must always keep it out of schools) ; in Hooker^ the First 
Book of his Ecclesiastical Polity; in Bacon, twenty of his best Essays, 
such as those on Envy, Great Place, or Travaile; in Milton, the Lycidas, 
the Comus^ the Hymn to the Nativity, and his other minor works, with 
perhaps one book of the Paradise Lost; in Butler, one or two Cantos of 
the Hudihrns; in Jeremy Taylor, a few chapters of the Holy Living and 
perhaps a Sermmi; in Dryden, the Absalom and Achitophel and the Mac 
Flecknoe; in Pope, the Rapte of the Lock and the Essay on Criticism; in 
Dr. Johnson, two or three of his Lives of the Poets and the Prefxe to the 
Bictionary, with perhaps Rass^elas; in Goldsmith, the Vicar of Wakefield, 
the Traveller and the Beserted Village; in Burke, the Reflections on the 
French Revolution and one of his speeches; in Cowper, the Task, the 
Progress of Error, Truth, and some of his minor poems, while \i\^ Letters 



114 ENGLISH LITERATURE 

should be read, were it only for their style; in Wordsworth, the best of his 
Sonnets, the Lines on Tintern Ahbey, Laodamia, and many of his minor 
poems; and in De Quincey, his Suspiria de Profundis, his Vision of 
Sudden Death, and some of his criticisms. 

But, even after all this has been done and well done, there are still two 

things to do. The first is to give the pupil an intelligible and striking 

view of our literature before Chaucer — that is, from the 

%^x"lish^ 5eoti52/// of the 5th century — a poem which, like the lUad, 

^^^ ^ ■ existed only in the memory and not in a written form, for 

several hundred years — down to Caedmon, Beda, and King Alfred, to 

the Saxon Chronicle and Chaucer. This ought to be done orally by the 

teacher, who should, at the same time, write upon the blackboard short 

characteristic extracts from the works of these authors, and explain and 

illustrate the growth of the oldest English, with its highly inflected forms, 

into our present English. The second thing to be done is, to connect 

every- where the appearance and the work of a writer with the 

The writer social condition and the pohtical events of the age in which he 

^ a e ^i'^^^' ^^^^ *o show — as far as this can be shown to a young 

' audience — how these influenced the character and the feelings 

of the writer. Nothing, for example, can be clearer or more easy to explain 

than the influence of the two opposite views of poUtics upon the writings 

of the two contemporaries, Milton and Butler. 

The standing difficulty and perpetual temptation — a difficulty with 
which the teacher will have constantly to fight, and a temptation which 
Arhitrary ^e will have at every moment to resist — is to present to his 

con- pupils conclusions the data for which have not been given, and 
elusions, critical results the steps to which have never been taken by the 
pupils themselves. There is nothing more prejudicial to the young 
mind — nothing so fatal to its kindly and harmonious growth, as the 
presence within it of ready-made thoughts, of alien ideas, and of too easily 
accepted results. The pupil may seem to be in possession of such ideas 
and conceptions, but he is not; they may seem to be the fruit of his own 
mind, but they are really dead artificial apples — the witnesses, not of a 
vigorous, spontaneous life, but of mental poverty and death. The second- 
hand is the deadly foe of original life. 

A large part of the benefit of a course of literature wUl be lost to the 
pupils, if they are not required, always and cvery-where, to react with 
their own mind upon the material they receive, and the forms 
^er^ses "^^^i*^^ ^^^7 ^^^ asked to contemplate. This view demands that, . 
accompanying every step of the course, there should be a well- 
selected and judiciously chosen set of exercises. Such exercises might 
include the following: 

(1) An account of a poem such as Chaucer's Prologue, in the pupil's 
own words, — always avoiding the vile practice of ''paraphrasing." (2) A 
short life of an author, from memory. (3) An abridgment of an important 
chapter from some prose work. (4) The turning into modern English of a 
passage from a writer of the 1 1th or 12th century. (5) A critical comparison 
between the treatment of the same subject by two different writers. (Thus 
Autumn has been treated both by Keats and Shelley; the Nightingale by 
Milton, Keats, and Matthew Arnold; the Death of a Friend by Spenser 



ESTHETIC CULTURE 115 

— in his Astrophel — and by Shelley — in his Adondis; an Escape by 
Shelley — in his Fngitives, and by Campbell, in his Loj^d Ulliii's BauglUer.) 
(6) The discussion of separate literary dicta — like the following by Eussell 
Lowell: " Style, like the grace of perfect breeding, makes itself felt by the 
skill with which it effaces itself, and masters us at last with a sense of 
indescribable completeness". (This might be at first discussed in the class- 
room ; and then the line of argument and the results w^ould be given in 
the form of an essay or paper.) (7) 'J'he story of a play of Shakespeare. 
(8) The analysis of some character in a play. There are many others which 
will naturally occur to the teacher in the course of his work. 

The steady purpose to be kept in view in this instruction is to deposit 
in the pupil's mind a few nuclei of thought, and to collect around these 
nuclei as larp-e an accretion of cognate ideas from different 
WTiters and from different ages as possible. The existence of 
these nuclei will enable the teacher to preserve unity in his teaching — to 
link together his lessons with bonds of " natural piety"'; and thus to make 
the thoughtful child the father of the wise and instructed man. And, from 
the point of view of intellectual training, they will enable him to keep true 
to the central principle of repetition tcitlwut monotony. 

The study of English literature is incomplete unless it include a view 
of the works of American authors, by whom ' many departments of the 
literature of the English language have been greatly enriched. 
American 'j'j^^g^ \^ poetry, the chief productions of Poe, Whittier, Long- 
fellow, VTillis, Bryant, etc., should be classified and criticised, 
and compared also with the productions of English poets in the same 
departments. In history, due attention should be given to Prescott, 
Hildreth, Bancroft, and Motley; and, in general literature, including essays, 
fiction, etc., Irving, Poe, Haw^thorne, Emerson, Tuckerman, Whipple, and 
a host of others, claim attention. The principles and methods suggested 
in regard to English authors?, in this article, are ecjually applicable to the 
American hterature of the English language. For a list of books of refer- 
ence, see Cyclopcedia of Education. 

ESTHETIC CTJLTUE-E. Esthetics (Gr. alG^?iTiK6c, from ala^dvEG^ai, 
to perceive), the science which treats of taste and its object, the beautiful 
in nature and art, has been recognized, since the middle of the 
Esthetics, jj^g^ century, as an independent branch of philosophy. Depend- 
ing, as it does, upon the exercise of a special faculty of the mind, it forms 
a part of the basis of a complete and harmonious education. However 
w^ell the intellect, the wiU, or the conscience of an individual may have 
been trained, if esthetic culture is wanting, he must continue rude and 
unrefined; and, hence, in a compririson of nations which are esthetically 
cultivated with such as are deficient in this respect, Ave find a marked 
difference in the degree as well as in the general character of the civilization 
which they respectively present. 'J'he esthetic element, however, cannot 
be wholly wanting. Even the rudest nations or the most barbarous tribes 
manifest delight in those objects which satisfy their natural sense of the 
beautiful. Like children, they feel an intense fondness for showy ornaments, 
uncouth pictures and images, harsh and discordant music, and grotesque 
dances. The love of these things springs from the esthetic principle in 
their minds, in its uncultivated and partly undeveloped condition. Their 



116 ESTHETIC CULTURE 

perceptions of the beautiful are, like their thoughts and their reasonings, 
processes unregulated and misdirected. They have, also, the moral sense — 
the sense of right and wrong, but not knowing how to distinguish right 
from wrong, they often conscientiously perform acts which, judged by a 
proper standard of rectitude, are reprehensible in the highest degree; for 
conscience is only the general impression that a distinction between right 
and wrong exists, not a power to discriminate between specific right and 
wrong. In the same manner, the esthetic principle is the sense by which 
the mind, in a general way, distinguishes between what is beautiful and 
what is ugly; but it does not teach specifically what objects are beautiful. 

Hence, however advanced persons may be in esthetic culture, 
Taste, ^jjgy ^yj^^ g^jij differ to some extent in this specific discrimina- 
tion. This difference we attribute to a diversity of taste, the word taste 
being used to designate the esthetic principle or faculty of the mind. We 
find, also, the same divei-sity in the exercise of the moral sense, in the 
absence of a settled standard, some persons regarding as worthy of approba- 
tion the same act that others look upon as decidedly sinful. 

The aim of esthetic education must, therefore, be to cultivate the sense 
of the beautiful, i. e., the taste, (1) by showing what the elements of beauty 

are, and tlius establishing in the mind a proper standard of the 
^1/^ r^ beautiful; (2) by presenting to the mind simple forms of beauty, 
cuUure ^^^ ^^^ purpose of illustrating this analysis of the elements, and 

also impressing them deeply upon the mind, as the foundation 
of esthetic culture; and (3) by practice in criticism, so that the mind may 
be trained to judge whether in any complex object, either of nature or art. 
the elementary principles of beauty are present, and in their normal or 
proper combination, 'i'he elements of beauty are to be sought for in the 
constitution of the human mind; and, therefore, our knowledge of what 
they are and how they are to be combined must be derived from experience 
and observation, upon the results of which esthetics as a science must be 
based. The educator must, antecedently to the exercise of his professional 
skill, have acquired a knowledge of this, just as the teacher of mathematics 
or of physics must be versed in those branches, before he learns how to 
teach them; but with this difference, that in esthetic culture, it is the 
faculty that is immediately addressed, the primary object being disciplinary; 
while in most other departments of instruction, discipline is a secondary 
object, the primary aim being to impart a knowledge of the subject taught. 
To illustrate, we do not, in elementary schools, teach esthetics as such; but 
we strive to cultivate the esthetic faculty by instruction in drawing, 
painting, music, etc. In this department of teaching, the practical value 
of the subjects themselves is a consideration of great importance, but the 
development of the pupil's taste is indispensable to any true progress, and, 
therefore, during the earlier stages at least, must be the primary aim of 
the educator. When the mind has become enriched with varied forms of 
beauty, the mechanical skill will soon advance to the degree requisite to 
give them expression. This work commences in the kindergarten, and is 
Practical continued in the object lessons of the primary school, by means 
sug- of varied exercises in form or color. The most rudimental 
gesiions. exercises in drawing should have a strict reference to this 
principle; that is to say, the pupils should be required to delineate not 



ETYMOLOGY — EXAMINATIONS 117 

uncouth figures, but simple forms of beauty. The hand and the eye may 
be trained, it is true, by practice in drawing any forms, whether beautiful 
or not; but the taste is to be developed and cultivated as well; and, 
therefore, only such forms as appeal to the esthetic sense should be. at 
first, presented. The elementary forms of the script letters are illustrative 
of the esthetic principle; and, hence, writing is a means of esthetic culture, 
'i'he letters themselves, however, being complex forms, it is held that 
rudimentary drawing should precede writing. 

Esthetics is not only concerned in the beauty of forms ; it embraces 

the objects of every bodily sense, and also of what may be called the inner 

Applica- sense, — a discriminative consciousness of the beautiful in 

tions. thought and action, which the rhetorician, the poet, and the 
orator recognize and address in their several spheres of activity. That 
part of esthetics which depends upon the objects of hearing is cultivated 
by means of music, which is the expression of the beautiful in sound. The 
same guiding principle is applicable to instruction in this as to the teaching 
of form, bimple melodious combinations, regular and beautiful in 
themselves, should be constantly employed; all that is harsh and dissonant 
should be avoided. The beauty of composition, that is, rhetorical beauty, 
depending upon subtler principles, requires a more careful treatment in 
education. Habit and association, however, play an important part in 
this branch of esthetic culture; and, therefore, the child, even from its 
earliest years, should be accustomed to hear only chaste, pure expressions; 
and the most familiar colloquialisms should be entirely free from what is 
coarse and vulgar, and especially from slang. The esthetic element in 
poetry cannot be addressed until an advanced stage of culture 

roetry. ^^^^ \iQQii reached. Poetry is the expression of the beautiful by 
means of words; it embraces rhetorical beauty, and the beauty of thought 
and action, as well as of external forms. 

ETYMOLOGY (Gr. hv/uoXoyia, from ervfiov, the true meaning of a 
word), a department of philological science which explains the derivation 
of words and their literal meaning. This is historical etymology. (See 
English, Study of.) The term etymology is also applied to that part of 
grammar which relates to the classification of words as parts of a sentence, 
and their various inflections, used to indicate their relations to one another, 
or modifications of the general ideas which they express. This is gram- 
matical etymology. (See Grammar.) Asa branch of elementary instruc- 
tion, it teaches the component parts of words, — root, prefix, and suffix, 
and by explaining the primitive meaning of these parts in the language 
from which they are derived, shows the exact literal meaning of the words. 
(See Words, AxALysis of.) 

EXAMINATIONS constitute an important part of the educator's 
work in order to test the result of what has already been accomplished, and 
to incite his pupils to additional efforts. While it is perfectly true that 
the best effects of educational training can be but imperfectly, if at all, 
tested by any personal examination; yet, there is no other ready and def- 
inite method of ascertaining the efficacy of the teacher's work and the pro- 
ficiency of the student. Examinations, moreover, are of great educative 
value, if they are conducted on sound principles. The judicious examiner 
who is master of the subject, while ascertaining what the student has 



118 EXAMt'LE — EXPULSION 

learned, necessarily, to some extent, shows him what he has failed to learn, 
either in consequence of an imperfect method of study or a lack of atten- 
tion to certain important parts of the subject. Thus he is taught how to 
make his future efforts more successful; and, further, by coming in contact 
with a mind more mature in its operations and attainments, he obtains 
views of the subject which no amount of study of his own could impart. 
On this account, examination and recitation should go hand in hand, the 
student showing, in the first place, what he has learned of the lesson as- 
signed to him, and the teacher then, by skillful examination, demonstrating 
to him his ignorance on certain points, and in this way instructing him in 
such things as may be beyond the grasp of his unaided research. Exami- 
nations of this kind form an indispensable part of instruction itself; those 
which occur at the end of certain periods, either for promotion, or for 
graduation, have in view the exclusive aim of testing the actual progress 
of the pupil. Indirectly, however, such examinations being anticipated 
by the student, guide and stimulate his efforts, both in acquiring and re- 
membering. — See CydopcEclia of Education. 

EXAMPLE, the Influence of. This depends upon imitation and 
sympathy, two principles of action which are exceedingly potent in the 
minds of all persons, but particularly in those of children. Its influence 
among men is shown by the existence of national customs, prejudices, vices, 
fashions, etc., and by the use of language, which would be scarcely possible 
without the force of imitation or example. In infancy and early childhood, 
this principle is the almost exclusive means of education, and the impres- 
sions which it makes are so strong and durable, that they are hardly ever 
obliterated in after life. Parents very rarely appear to realize that they 
are, by a kind of " unconscious tuition", educating their children simply 
by what they say and do in their presence. The power of example has an 
important ai3plication in the education of the intellect; since, in giving in- 
struction in any department of science or art, the illustrative power of the 
teacher, in showing to the pupil what it is desired that he should ac- 
complish, has great efficacy in stimulating his efforts, and more especially 
in fixing in his mind a definite standard to the attainment of which he 
may direct his aim. Indeed, in every branch of instruction, imitation is 
one of the most important principles for the teacher to recognize and em- 
ploy. But it is in moral education that the force of example has its chief 
sphere of activity. In it is comprehended all that we mean by the personal 
influence of the instructor. His manners, his modes of action and speech, 
the expression of his countenance, and the tones of his voice, all are con- 
stituent elements of this influence. This personal power, it has been well 
said, is an " emanation flowing from the very spirit of the teacher's own 
life, as well as an influence acting insensibly to form the life of the scholar". 
— See JJnconsciovs Tuition, by Prof . Huntington. 

EXPULSION" is often resorted to in schools in the case of pupils 
who, by their willfulness, insubordination, reckless and disorderly conduct, 
or general depravity, cease to be amenable to the ordinary regulations of 
the school, or are likely to contaminate the manners and morals of the other 
pupils. It is an extreme measure, which, in public schools, should not be 
taken until all other proper means to control the pupils have been employed; 
because it generally deprives these pupils of all opportunity of receiving 



EYE 119 

the education for which the laws of the state provide. Two circumstances 
can alone justify it: (1) That the pupil is utterly uncontrollable by any of 
the or Jinary means of school government; (2) That the depraved character 
of the pupil is such as to imperil the welfare of the other pupils. Expul- 
sion, in some places, is used as a substitute for corporal punishment; but 
the propriety of this has been called in question. In view of the fact that 
the expulsion of incorrigible pupils must be occasionally necessary under 
all circumstances, it would appear that a reformatory institution constitutes 
an essential part of every public-school system. 

EYE, Cultivation of the. The sense of sight is capable of an al- 
most incredible improvement by culture; of this, modern scientific in- 
vestigations leave no doubt. We see improvement in this 
of culture ^^^P^^^ ^^^^ only in individuals but in the general visual capacity 
of whole nations. There can be no question, for example, that, 
3,000 years ago, wiien the civilization of the Chinese came to a stand-still, 
they were very deficient in the power of seeing perspectively; so that, in 
spite of all their skill in drawing and painting, their pictures show^ all ob- 
jects on the same plane, without any variation of size, or of light and shade, 
in order to represent the distances and relative positions of the objects de- 
picted. Many proofs might be adduced to show that, in the course of 
centuries, the human eye has improved in power. The aim of education 
in this respect is tw^ofold: (1) To improve the physiological conditions of 
sight, by removing any causes of a morbid state, or by strengthening the 
physical organ of vision; (2) To cultivate, by judicious practice, the sense 
of sight, so as to render it more observant, and able to receive more full 
and accurate impressions of the objects which pass before it. This is of 
special importance, as of all the senses that of sight is, without doubt, the 
most far-reaching, and leads to the most numerous and vivid conceptions. 

The cultivation of the,eye should begin soon after birth, and, for a few 

weeks, should be confined to keeping the infant from all excessive glare 

of light; but, at the same time, allowing it sufiicient light 

When to properly to excite the nervous activity. Children, like plants, 

■ need a great deal of sunlight, which, provided it is not dazzling, 

is the most important agent of both bodily and mental growth. At the 

first, it should be a reflected, diffused, and mild light, direct sunlight being 

admitted only after several wrecks, and then gradually. Weak eyes may 

also be caused by surroundings of but one color, particularly if 

Methods, (jgcidedly briUiant. Hence, it is well to relieve the impression 

made by a single color, by alternation with its complementary. Red or 

blue curtains should be never allowed continuously to throw their tinge upon 

the infant's eye; but, as a rule, subdued colors should be preferred. The 

power of distinguishing both outlines and shades of color is susceptible of 

cultivation by means of the slow movement of bodies of different hues 

before the child's eyes. This is an exercise w^hich is employed in Froebel's 

nursery education, and is very properly accompanied by singing, because 

the sense of hearing, having an earlier development, is well adapted to 

excite the action of sight. After the second or third month, when the 

infant can wueld its hands and arms, the sense of touch should be called 

into activity in order to correct the impressions made on the eye. 

Various contrivances may be resorted to for this purpose, among them 



120 EYE 

the suspended wooden globe and colored balls which Froebel suggests 
for use at this stage of education. As the child learns the meaning 
of simple language fully one or two years before it is able to repeat 
the words, it is safe to let it hear the names of the things which it 
sees and handles, but always in connection with the objects themselves. 
Thus language fixes, at the age of infancy, the various impressions of 
the senses, which impart a definite meaning to every word, and thus 
secure the proper expressions when the child begins to speak. When 
language has been acquired to some extent, the teacher should, by means 
of skillful questioning, attract the child's attention to those visible 
properties and peculiarities of things which, without a trained observa- 
tion, are generally passed by without notice. It is surprising how much ■ 
may be instantaneously perceived by a trained eye, and how delicate ^ 
and far-reaching the sense of sight may become, under circumstances 
requiring its constant exercise. Thus the practiced astronomer is able 
to notice the most minute points of light, which the ordinary observer 
utterly fails to detect. On the other hand, the eye is, of all our organs of 
sense-perception, the most delusive if it is permitted habitually to gaze at 
objects without any comprehensive or discriminative view of their pecu- 
liarities and less obvious details. It is on this account, that Froebel 
invented that well-arranged system of kindergarten occupations, by which 
the free self-activity of the child, stimulated by agreeable intercourse with 
those of his own age, learns how to employ his sense of sight in an endless 
variety of pleasurable work, that never ceases to educate both mentally and 
morally. (See Kindergarten, and Object Teaching.) 

Without any special or technical aid, the teacher may readily discover 
whether any of his pupils are color-blind, by a proper use of color-charts 

or color-tablets. Every child that cannot select from among ■ 
hUn^ess *^^ tablets the exact color which is pointed out on the chart is, 

of course, more or less color-blind, and should have the benefit 
of frequent exercises with (1) the three primary colors, and (2) with their 
double and triple combinations. By using very strong and brilliant colors 
alternately with those complementary to them, this kind of defect in sight 
may be, in part at least, removed. (See Color.) - 

Teachers should not permit their pupils to stoop while engaged in read-1 
ing, writing, or drawing; since this tends to injure the sight. It is also 

advisable to accustom the pupils to use their eyes at changing 
au ion. (jis^g^nces of the object with an equal degree of perfection, 
especially in reading, writing, and drawing. Then, if the eye be tired at 
a given angle of sight, it may continue its work, without injury or discom- 
fort, at a smaller or larger angle, and thus be enabled to do more work 
without detriment to the sight. Many of the ordinary school arrange- 
ments are more or less injurious to the organ of sight. " Short-sighted- 
ness", says Liebreich (School Life in its Injiiience on Sight, London, 1872), 
Short- ** is developed almost exclusively during school life; rarely after- 
sighted- wards, and very rarely before that time. Is this coincidence of 
ness. time accidental, — i. e. , does the short-sightedness arise at the 
period at which children go to school, or has school life caused the 
short-sightedness ? Statistical inquiries prove the latter to be the case, and 
have shown, at the same time, that the percentage of short-sighted children 



FACULTY— FEAR 121 

is greater in schools where unfavorable optical conditions prevail". There 
are, according to this writer, three chairges in the functions of the eye, 

which are immediately developed under the influence of school 

Efects \{{q. n\ Decrease of the range of vision — short-sightedness 

ife (mi/opid), (2) Decrease of the acuteness of vision (amblyojdn)^ 

and (8) Decrease of the endurance of vision [ciHthenopin). '^Phese 
are chiefly caused by such arrangements as afford either insufficient Huht, 
or admit it in an improper manner. The following is an important practical 
direction in this respect: " The light must be sufficiently strong, and must 
fall on the table from the left-hand side, and, as far as possible, from above. 
The children ought to sit straight, and not have the book nearer to the eye 
than ten inches at the least. Besides this, the book ought to be raised 20*^ 
for writing, and about 40^ for reading. — See Fahrner, The Child and 
the Desk. (See Hygiene, School, and Senses, Education of.) See also 
Year-Book of Education for 1878, art. Hygiene. 

FACULTY {L2it. factdtas) , a term originally applied to a body of men 
to whom any particular privilege or right is granted; hence, in a college 
or university, the faculty consists of those upon whom has been conferred 
the right of teaching as professors of specific subjects (facultasprrfi endi et 
docendi.) The faculties of a university are subordinate corporations, each 
consisting of a body of teachers, or professors, in some particular depart- 
ment of knowledge. At first the European university (that of Paris) 
comprised but two faculties, — that of arts (q. v.) and that of theology, to 
which, in the 13th century, those of canon and civil law and of medi- 
cine were added. The division into four faculties was transferred from 
the University of Fan's to the German universities; the faculty of arts was 
afterwards named the philosophical faculty. Many changes have been intro- 
duced in this part of university organization since that time. In American 
universities and colleges, the faculty consists of the body of professors, 
with the president at its head, and has the power of conferring degrees. 

FAGGING, a peculiar custom which has existed, from the earliest 
times, in the great public schools of England — Eton, Harrow, Rugby, etc., 
according to whfch boys of the lower forms (classes) perform certain per- 
sonal services, for those of the higher. These services are either due to a 
particular student — the special master — or to the whole higher class. 
The former are such as carrying the master's messages, preparing his break- 
fast, waiting upon him at dinner, stoking his fire, etc.; and the general 
duties are to attend at the games, in cricket, for example, standing behind 
the wickets to catch the balls, and other such minor services. While 
many of these services appear to be of a menial character, they are not con- 
sidered such, inasmuch as, without a fag, the boy would be obliged to per- 
form them for himself. The S5^stem of fagging, like pennalism, in the 
German universities, has been the means of great abuse and tyranny exer- 
cised upon the younger students, yet it has strenuous defenders, as being, 
on the whole, beneficial. 

FEAR, a sense of danger, the apprehension of coming injury, or the 
anticipation of pain, is an emotion of the mind which the educator often 
finds it necessary to excite, in order to control the actions of his pupil, but 
which he should address with extreme care and only after other means of 



122 FEAB 

persuasion have failed. There are two kinds of government, — that of 
influence and that of force; and the former should always be preferred to 

the latter, because it addresses the inner nature and produces a 
Eoin permanent effect upon the character, while the latter can be only 
'^z ^^.d temporary. By the one, the will of a child is trained, and a self- 
emp oye . ^^j^^pQjjJQg power is fixed in the mind; by the other the mis- 
directed, perverted will is still left a prey to vicious propensities, the oper- 
ation of which is checked only as long as the external restraint continues. 
Some dispositions, however, need to be restrained by a sense of fear before 
other influences can be brought to bear upon them. Many children are 
inconsiderate, rash, and impulsive, and accordingly yield at once to their 
propensities. Pliysical punishment seems to be needed in order to produce 
any conscientious observation of their own conduct; but, without great 
care on the part of the educator, in inflicting pain for this purpose, much 
injury may be done to the child. Unless the educator's personality in this 
infliction can be subordinated, in the child's mind, to the sense of deserved 
punishment for wrong-doing, he will antagonize the child, and destroy all 
means of controlling him by personal influence. " The moment a child's 

mind is strongly affected by fear", says Horace Mann, " it flies 
Ef^ct of ii^stinctively away, and hides itself in the deepest recesses it can 
* find, — often in the recesses of disingenuousness and perfidy and 
falsehood. Instead of exhibiting to you his whole consciousness, he con- 
ceals from you as much of it as he can; or he deceptively presents to you 
some counterfeit of it, instead of the genuine. No frighted water-fowl 
whose plumage the bullet of the sportsman has just grazed, dives quicker 
beneath the surface than a child's spirit darts from your eye when you have 
filled it with the sentiments of fear". This is especially true of certain 
dispositions; and, hence, this appeal to fear should not be made without 
very careful discrimination. Hecker, in the Scientific Basis of Education 
(N. Y., 1868), says, "If cautiousness is too large, seek to influence the 
child through his affections. Fear will paralyze such a mind. To make 
this faculty useful where it is predominant, the teacher must get the affec- 
tions of the child, and he can then, by proper direction, make fear an in- 
telligent restraint". No school government can be approved that is not 
intended to amend as well as to control. Children should be made to 

fear to do wrong; and this should be brought about as much as 
wrona possible by what Herbert Spencer calls the method of nature^ 

that is, by making punishment the necessary consequence of the 
wrongful act, on the principle involved in the maxim, "The burnt child 
dreads the fire". This eliminates the personal element in the fear implanted 
in the mind of the child. He does not fear the teacher, but he fears to 
offend, — to do wrong. The same consideration excludes from discipline 
all threatening, scolding, and harsh words, for the purpose of engendering 
fear, and, especially excludes anger in punishment. The fear to be excited 
in the mind of the child should not be an apprehension of personal safety, 
leading to meanness, cunning, and deception as a means of self-protection, 
but should be akin to that feeling which Solomon referred to when he said, 
" The fear of the Lord is the beginning of wisdom". This is not incon- 
sistent with a constant appeal to the higher motives and finer feelings of 
human nature, but may be made a means of their development. 



FEMALE EDUCATIO:^? 123 

TEMALE EDUCATION". This is a subject which, especially in 

recent years, has very greatly engaged the attention of practical educators, 

scientific educationists, physicians, and all others who have either 

Impor- -written or spoken on questions concerning the present condition 

themb)ect. ^^^ future prospects of human society and human welfare. The 

proper education of woman has been recognized as an important, 

perhaps the chief, factor of social progress. In ancient times, woman in 

general, occupied a secluded state; and it was only in the privacy of the 

home circle that she exerted the potent influence inseparable from her sex, 

whether as daughter, wife, or mother. The Roman matron, within this 

narrow limit, was an educator of her daughters always, and Gometimes 

partly of her sons, as in the case of Cornelia, illustrious as the " mother 

of the Gracchi". 

History affords many examples of women who, breaking through the 
barriers of social custom, became illustrious for their learning and elo- 
quence. Such were Aspasia of Athens, and Hypatia of Alexandria. The 
career of such women illustrated the intellectual capacity of their sex 
under circumstances permitting or encouraging its culture. Female educa- 
Education ^^^^' ho'^-ever, has always been viewed as radically distinct from 
of males that of males, — as presenting entirely different aims, and 

and requiring different processes of training and instruction, and a 
females, -widely different curriculum of study. Much has been said and 
done in recent years to modify very greatly this view; but it is still gener- 
ally entertained, and is, at the present time, the principle on which most 
schemes for the education of females are based. "A system of education", 
says Maudsley, " adapted to women should have regard to the peculiarities 
of their constitution, to the special function in life for which they are 
destined, and to the range and kind of practical activity, mental and bodily, 
to which they would seem foreshadowed by their sexual organization of 
body and mind". " From the beginning of the eighth year", says Schwarz, 
*' the two sexes require, in almost every respect, a different education". 
** The culture of girls", says Von Raumer, "commonly requires a process of 
instruction entirely different from that of boys". Alonzo Potter, in the 
School and the Schoolmaster (N. Y., 1842), emphasizes this principle, and 
argues that " there should be, in the education of females, a special refer- 
ence to their sex and condition of life". '• The best educational training 
for a boy", says Dr. Clarke, in Sex in Education (Boston, 1873), "is not 
the best for a girl, nor that for a girl best for a boy". Such are the views 
upon which the education of females has been based. Arranged, as it has 
been by the other sex, the only considerations that have dictated its meth- 
ods and processes have been the average physical weakness of women as 
compared with men, and the accomplishments they might need as wives 
and matrons. It is not difficult to perceive that were the education of 
men arranged by the other sex from an analogous stand-point, it would 
also be narrowed in its scope and processes. During the last few years, 
the questions pertaining to female education have been vigorously discussed 
by writers of both sexes; and much experience has been gathered, which 
appears to show that the necessity for a modified system of education for 
females is by no means so great as has been supposed and asserted. See 
Cyclopcedia of Education. 



124 ^^^^^^m FICTION 

FICTION, Works of, constitute an important part of the literature 

used in the education of children. The young mind delights in interesting 

tales, and receives impressions therefrom, deeper and more durable perhaps 

. than those derived from any other source. While it instinctively 

education P^^^^^^^^ what is fictitious in the scenes and incidents of the 

story, it imbibes as true the characters of the personages and 
their relations; that is, it feels that such characters and relations may, 
possibly or actually, exist in real life. 

By means of suitable works of fiction, the minds of children and youth 
may be cultivated in several respects; (1) By imparting vivid conceptions 
of persons and things; (2) By impressing upon them sentiments of virtue, 
courage, and patriotism; (3) By developing and training the imagination 
and the taste. Such were the reasons which prompted Fenelon to write 
2''elemnqiie, and probably Xenophon in the composition of the Cyropcedla; 
and this office of fiction as a vehicle of instruction and moral elevation has 
been recognized by most, if not all, great educators. Pestalozzi selected 
it as the most effective means of reaching the popular mind. In his 
Leonard and Gertrude (1784), he laid the foundation for a national 

pedagogical literature, 'i'here are, however, dangers to be avoided 
angei s. ^^ ^sing fiction as an educational agent, which we may thus 
briefly summarize: (1) By its exciting character, it may so occupy or 
intoxicate the mind, as to destroy the taste for more solid and useful 
reading. Such is uniformly the result of permitting children to read the 
wild, romantic, and startling stories, with which some of the juvenile 
periodicals of the day are filled. The constant perusal of such narratives 
is baneful; like ardent spirits, it intoxicates but does not nourish, (2) In 
the case of narratives which present instances of suffering, the sympathies 
are expended upon fictitious objects, and pity thus becomes habitually a 
mere sentiment, instead of prompting to active beneficence. ''In the 
healthy state of the moral feelings", says Abercrombie, " the emotion of 
sympathy excited by a tale of sorrow ought to be followed by some efforts 
for the relief of the sufferer. When such relations in real life are listened 
to from time to time without any such efforts, the emotion gradually 
becomes weakened, and that moral condition is produced which we call 
selfishness, or hardness of heart". (3) By presenting to the young mind 
fictitious scenes of immorality, vice, or crime, it becomes familiar with their 
associations, and is thus depraved. (4) By impressing upon the mind false 
conceptions of the enjoyments, duties, and objects of life, it may be the 
means of producing a kind of infatuation, unfitting for every sphere of 
useful employment. Johnson, in Rassdas, well describes this mental 
condition: "'I he mind dances from scene to scene, unites all pleasures 
in all combinations, and riots in delights which nature and fortune, 
with all their bounty, cannot bestow. In time, some particular train 
of ideas fixes the attention; all other intellectual gratifications are re- 
jected; the mind, in weariness or leisure, recurs constantly to the favorite 
conception, and feasts on the luscious falsehood whenever she is offended 
with the bitterness of truth. By degrees the reign of fancy is confirmed; 
she grows imperious, and in time despotic. Then fictions begin to operate 
as realities, false opinions fasten upon the mind, and life passes in dreams 
of rapture or of anguish". (See Imagination, Culture of.) 



FORM 125 

FORM, one of the most important branches of object teaching, since, 
from the first dawn of intellect, the endless variety of forms presented to 

the child's sight constitutes perhaps the most effective means of 

Why an awakening and exercising its perceptive faculties. The first 

^^mlic/u comparison which the young child makes between the objects of 

its perception must be based upon their resemblances, the con- 
scious perception of differences occurring somewhat later. 1'his arises from 
its need of forming general ideas as preliminary to the exercise of its think- 
ing powers. The diversity of forms, like that of color, as seen by the child, 
very greatly interests it and attracts its attention; and, hence, when formal 
education begins, the child has already accumulated in its mind, in a rude 
and indefinite way, many materials which the expert teacher will use, in 
guiding his pupil to more exact knowledge. The untaught child's vocabu- 
lary of terms to denote the various forms which it has seen is very meager; 
and, hence, its conceptions are too indefinite to form the materials for 
conscious thought. They are, as it were, only embiyotic thoughts, to be 
developed by the power of language. Hence, an important office of the 
instructor is to teach the proper term, or word, by which each particular 
object of the child's attention is to be designated, and in this way clearly 
individualized. For examjDle, a young child intuitively perceives the dif- 
ference between the form of a round object and a square one; but before 
the terms round OMd. squarehRxe been learned as the names of these forms, 
they cannot be used by the mind in any process of thought. Besides, the 
young mind, in the exercise of its unaided powers, is chiefly occupied with 
the observation of resemblances and analogies, and only after the guidance 
of the teacher, comes to recognize clearly points of difference, the senfie of 
analogy y as it has been called, taking the lead in the first stages of mental 
development. 

In making use oiform as a basis for training the observing faculties 
the teacher should be guided by the following principles: (1) Resemblances 

are perceived before differences; (2) The concrete precedes the 

Guiding abstract; (3) Every object is perceived as a whole before its 

* component parts are noticed; (4) Every idea must have its 

proper verbal designation to be clearly and permanently fixed in the mind. 

The teacher should, therefore, begin with simple regular forms, such as the 

cube, prism, parallelopiped, pyramid, sphere, cone, and cylinder. These, 

at first, should be all alike in material and color, and about the 
Processes, gg^jj-^g j^ gJ2e, so that the teacher may clearly develop the idea of 
form, as the rudimental step in the instruction. At first the process 
should be very slow. Thus the teacher holds up to the view of the pupils 
a cubical block of wood [one of the box of solids usually employed in sucli 
lessons] , and asks, " AVhat is this ?" And the children probably reply, '' A 
piece of wood"'. Then the teacher presents successively the sphere, cone, 
cylinder, etc., asking the same question and obtaining the same answer. 
The teacher then says, ''Each of these is a piece of wood; are they all 
alike ?" To which the children answer, " No". " Do they differ in color?" 
"Xo". "In size?" "No". This leads the teacher to show, in a very 
general way, not by giving names at first, but by directing the pupils' at- 
tention, that the objects differ inform; that is, each has its own peculiar 
form. The teacher may then y.o back to the cube, and ask the pupils to 



126 FEEXCH LANGUAGE 

mentiou any other things they have seen which have the same form as the 
block of wood; and so on with the other forms. This exercise beina a per- 
fectly natural one will awaken interest, besides familiarizing the children 
with the particular forms presented. The next step will be to lead the 
children to observe the points of difference between these forms; and, in 
order to do this, the analytic process must begin. Thus, the teacher devel- 
ops the idea of side or face, and the pupils perceive that the cube has six 
faces; the elges, corners, and equality of faces and edges may then be ob- 
served. When the pupil has perceived the distinctive characteristics of the 
form, its name, as cube, prism, etc., may be taught. This method requires 
the teacher to begin with solids (as the concrete) and to deduce from the 
observation of them, the ideas of surface, line, and jyoint (as the abstract), 
in accordance with the principle (2). After these ideas have been thus 
developed, and the method of representing lines and figures on the black- 
Variei board shown to the pupil, he is prepared for varied slate and 
exercises, blackboard exercises on the positions and combinations of lines 
both straight and curved, to be followed by similar exercises on plane 
figures. The study oiform thus passes into that of drawing, in connec- 
tion with which inventive exercises of a simple character maybe employed, 
the children being shown how to combine lines and figures into simple pat- 
terns or designs. Of a similar but more elementary character are block 
combinations, which will serve to interest and instruct very young children. 
Boxes of blocks made for this purpose, with designs for construction, can 
be readily obtained. Charts containing diagrams of plane figures will also 
be found very useful in giving lessons on form. These lessons should be 
systematic, not desultory, but regularly arranged, with the underlying 
principle kept steadily in view. Especially should the teacher guard against 
requiring the pupils to commit to memory formal geometrical definitions, 
the chief point to be attained being the discipline of the observing faculties. 

FREN'CH LANGUAGE. The French language is universally recog- 
nized as standing, with the English and German, at the head of the lan- 
. gnages of the civ^ilized world. "Wherever a knowledge of any other 
educatU3n ^^^^^ ^^^ native language is valued, French always has its claims 
" considered. Hence, in the schools of the English-speaking world, 
it usually occupies, with the German language, a place in the course of study. 

Instruction in French, as in every other foreign language, begins with 
the acquisition of a correct pronunciation. Xext to English, French is 
the least phonetic of all languages; and, therefore, a large 
number of rules must be learned before the pupil is able to 
pronounce ordinary words. It is important that this pronunciation 
should be learned, partly at least, by means of an imitation of the 
teacher's pronunciation. Memorizing lessons, before the correct pronuncia- 
tion has been acquired is positively injurious. The French grammar offers 
but few peculiarities and diflBculties. The absence of case-endings and 
of many other inflections, and the paucity of simple teases and of 
changes in the radical part of irregular verbs, facilitate the reading of 
a French author at a very early stage of instruction. The chief peculiar- 
ities, such as the interrogative and negative form of sentences, ought 
to be frequently practiced. Attention should be called to the rela- 
tionship which the Latin and the Xorman elements of the English 



GEXETIC METHOD 127 

language bear to both English and French. Simple exercises in etymology 
may greatly facilitate the early acquisition of a sufficient number of 
words, to enable the pupil to read easy writers without a too frequent 
use of the dictionary. If French is studied by pupils who possess some 
knowledge of Latin, this knowledge can be used to great advantage in 
etymological illustration, and in giving a clear view of the peculiar 
character of the Romanic languages. The imderstanding of French 
authors can be made quite easy for most pupils, who soon find that 
the majority of the words have equivalents from the same roots in 
their own language. The reading should, therefore, be rapid and not 
too much interrupted by grammatical or literary remarks. The aim, 
at first, should be to make the language familiar to the pupil; as he 
advances, it will be easy, without any sacrifice of time, to call attention 
to the rhetorical excellencies of the French classics. Classic prose should 
precede poetry, and should be read to a much larger extent. The great 
prose writers of the 17th and 18th centuries have some claims to the 
privilege of being read first; at all events, they should not be neglected. 
French literature is exceedingly rich in works suited, in every respect, 
for beginners; and there is no reason why modern writers should deprive 
Fenelons Telemaqrte and Voltaire's Cliarles XII of the deserved popularity 
which they have so long enjoyed. — There is, generally, too Httle time in 
English and American institutions for the study of French literature. In 

most cases, the time devoted to it may be more profitably spent 
literature ^ improving the pupil's technical knowledge of the language. 

Of coui'se, advanced pupils should become acquainted with the 
most celebrated authors as well as a rudimentary outline of the literary 
liistory of France; but most of this can best be learned as an introduction 
to the reading of the standard writers. Good French reading books, with 
literary introductions to the different authors, may be used for this 
purpose, especially in advanced classes, with great advantage. The reading 
of selections which would make the pupil acquainted with the peculiar 
style and excellencies of Corueille, Eaciae, Moliere, Boileau, Fenelon, etc. 
of the age of Louis XIT; of Voltaire, Eousseau, Montesquieu, Florian, &c., 
of the philosophical century; of Chateaubriand, Beranger, Lamartine, 
V. Hugo, G. Sand, Guizot, Thiers, Michelet, kc, of modem times, is prefer- 
able to the exclusive reading of one or two entire works of French 

literature. — When colloquial exercises constitute the chief part 
exermes ^^ French instruction, and to acquire fluency of speech is the 

chief aim, care should be exercised that the command of the 
language thus obtained may give to the pupil something more than a 
collection of trivial phrases and unmeaning expressions of politeness. 
Eminent educators have often called attention to the dangerous influence 
which a knowledge, so exclusively formal and without substance, may 
exercise upon the pupil's mind. 

GENETIC METHOD, in instruction, is but another name for what 
is more frequently called the developing method. The term genetic implies 
that the mind of the pupil is to be guided by the teacher in such a way 
that it will be able to perceive the genesis of the truths communicated, 
that is, their development from fimdamental principles; or that it will be 



128 GENIUS — GEOGRAPHY 



led to construct for itself general principles from observed facts as 
antecedents. This method recognizes the need of a gtuesis. or development, 
of actual conceptions in the mind of the pupil, as the basis for every 
other educational process. (See Developing Method.) 

GENIUS (Lat. genius, innate j)Ower or capacity, from gignere, to 
produce), as used in modern times, has been variously defined by many 

writers, who, though differiijg widely as to its essential quality, 
Dejinition.. ^^^ agreed as to its outward, distinguishing manifestation; 
namely, unusual mental ability coupled always with great intuitional or 
creative power. Akin to getiins are those special aptitudes which are 
maaifested, some times at quite an early age. 'Ihese, as constituting a part 

of the character, should be recognized by the educator; and 
autUadL "^^^^^ ^^^J shoull not form the basis of general training or 
' disjipline, should ba allowed fheir specific exercise; and, in the 
more advanced steps of education, should become distinct objects of 
culture. The existence of this special talent, or of genius itself, should 
not be permitted to supersede the necessity of industry and application. 
As far as possible, the tasks imposed by the instructor should bear a 
proper relation to the special ability of the students, those who are of 
brilliant parts being required to accomplish more than those who are 
com])aratively dull and slow to acquire. Many youths of great promise, 
in large schools, are often seriously injured by insufficient requirements, 
lapsi 'g into sloth or bad habits by the want of full occupation. This 
principle is of great importance; though its application in school and 
college education is accompanied with many ditficulties. The true edu- 
cator will, however, recognize it, and allow it to guide and regulate many 
of his operations. The possession of the brightest genius cannot supersede 
the necessity of industry and study. *' Invention", said Sir Joshua 
Reynolds, "is one of the great marks of genius; but, if we consult 
experience, we shall find, that it is by being conversant with the inven- 
tions of others, that we learn to invent, as, by reading the thoughts 
of others, we learn to think". 

GEOGrRAPHY (Gr. yea, yf], the earth, and yodcppiv, to write) has in 
its own name a concise yet comprehensive definition. In treating of 
geography as a branch of elementary instruction (for such it exclusively is 
at the present time), we shall consider (I) what are the faculties which are 
specially exercised in studying it; (II) the different stages into which the 
instruction should be divided, and what is proper to each; (III) the age 
at which the study should be commenced; and (lY) the proper methods of 
teaching it. Geography presents to the mind conceptions of countries and 

peoples that we have never visited, analogous to those which we 
bcope. i^^yQ acquired in relation to regions which we have actually 
seen. It further seeks to combine and generalize these conceptions into a 
systematic view of the earth as a whole, and as the abode of mankind. 
The fundamental conceptions, therefore, which are to be thus amplified, 
combined, or otherwise modified, must be based upon objective presenta- 
tion. A landscape, the more varied the better, or in default of this, a 
good pictorial representation, as its nearest equivalent, must furnish most 

of the basic elements. The first, though limited, steps must, 
vs s eps. therefore, be made through an appeal to the perceptive faculties. 



n 



GEOGRAPHY 129 

ITie second stage must consist in an exercise of the conceptive faculties in 
vividly recalling and combining the impressions which the objective 
presentation has made upon the mind. The pupil must be trained to 
recall the image of the mountain, the island, the forest, the placid lake, 
the verdant plain, or the flowing river; to see again, as it were, the tossing 
ocean and to hear the roar of its waves as they break upon the beach; and 
to picture to himself in one season of the year the aspect of nature in an- 
other. These and other analogous impressions, already obtained from 
physical phenomena, must furnish the indispensable basis for any true 
progress in geographical knowledge. But all this training is not the 
teaching of geography, but only the necessary preparation for it. These 
conceptions are to geography but as the syllables to language, 
Imagma- or as the gamut to melody. Throughout the teaching of 
addressed. S^'^^^^^^y^ ^^o^her mental faculty, the imagination of the 
'pupil, must be brought into exercise. These conceptions of 
phenomena and of regions that he has actually seen must now be modified, 
amplified, and combined, to form conceptions of phenomena and regions 
that he has not seen. The conception of the rivulet must be expanded to 
that of the mighty river; the little lake or pond must lead the mind to the 
broad ocean; and the little hills, to mountain ranges. The low sun and 
snowy fields of winter nmst be modified into an arctic landscape; and the 
verdant meadow, into the boundless prairie. When, at the proper stage, 
the study of maps is introduced, the discipline of the memory 
Memory. ^^ added to that of the perceptive, conceptive, and imaginative 
faculties, as in remembering the location of mountains, islands, rivers, and 
towns, and the various facts associated with them; while an appeal is also 
made, with increasing frequency, to i\\e judgment, in tracing the necessary 
relation of tne location of cities to rivers and coast-lines, and in connecting 
the general course of a river with the elevations and slopes of the country 
which it drains. 

II. The successive stages of geographical instruction have been already, 
in part, indicated. The conceptions and distinctions of mainland and is- 
land; of mountain, hill, and table- land; of lake, river, basin, 
^^ierms ^^^J^ peninsula, and cape; of climate, vegetation, race, and other 
geographical elements, should first be fixed, and then the terms 
which embody them should be described by the pupil himself. Too much 
stress is usually placed upon the precise and formal definitions of these 
terms. Some of them, such as sea, gulf, bay, and lake, as actually used, 
defy all sharp differentiation; and others, such as continent and watershed, 
are variously used by standard authorities. It must be borne in mind that 
the definitions in geography have a totally distinct function from those of 
mathematics, grammar, and other logical or deductive sciences. In these, 
the correct conception of a term, such as parallelogram or adjective, is to 
be obtained from its definition; whereas, in geography, the definition, if 
required, must be developed from a correct conception of the object defined. 
The formal definitions of geographical terms have, indeed, their place; but 
this is not in the first stage of the subject. The geographical terms and 
their association should be followed by ideas of direction or relative posi- 
tion, that is, a knowledge of the cardinal points; after this, the construction 
and interpretation of a simple map of limited and known localities, be- 



130 GEOGRAPHY 

ginning perhaps with a plan or map of the school room itself, followed 
by a map of the immediate neighborhood, then by that of the county as it 
would appear if seen from a balloon. When the pupil has been 
Maps, thoroughly trained to understand the symbols of the map, and 
readily to picture to himself the things that are symbolized by the various 
lines, dots, and other marks, he is in possession of all the elementary ideas 
essential to the subject. — Either of two opposite courses may now be 
pursued in giving the outline of geography itself such as is usually included 
in a primary or elementary course for beginners. One of these plans, 
. known as the synthetic, begins with the study of a map of the 
method l^c^l^ty o^ t^6 pupil's home or neighborhood; it takes next the 
map of the county, tlien of the state or district, and, finally, 
of the whole country in which the pupil resides. After this, follows the 
study of the simple outlines of the continent of which the country forms 
a part; then the outlines of the other continents or grand divisions, in some 
preferred order, and finally a general review, which completes and combines 
all that has preceded it into a brief view of the world as a whole. The 
. other, or analytic system, pursues, at least in its early stages, an 
system ^^^^^ly reverse course. From the consideration of certain com- 
mon phenomena and other well-known facts, the pupil is first 
led to form a conception of the earth as a gigantic globe or ball; then of 
the primary divisions of its surface into laud and water; and then of the 
leading subdivisions of these primary elements. After learning the climatic 
division of the earth into zones, the pupil studies the continents, each in 
its turn, as in the other system. Both of these systems have their strong 
points, both have been successfully followed, and both have earnest advo- 
cates. Excepting in their initial and terminal stages they have much in 
common. One great advantage of the analytic system is, that it more 
readily admits the early introduction of the terrestrial globe, and requires 
its frequent use throughout. In no other way can certain serious miscon- 
ceptions be thoroughly prevented. The use of maps of different scales, 
together with the inherent faults of projection, leads to erroneous ideas in 
regard to the relative size of countries, and to wrong conceptions of their 
relative positions. These first impressions are hard to correct, and, in the 
majority of cases, are never corrected. The globe should have 
tJealohe ^^^ leading place in teaching elementary geography. It should 
be used to fix the idea of the spherical shape of the earth, its 
dimensions, and the division of its surface into land and water. It should 
give the first view of its division into continents, oceans, islands etc., and 
just conceptions of their relative position and magnitude. By no other 
means can the astronomic elements of primary geography be so simply and 
correctly taught; such as the causes of day and night, and of the seasons, 
the zones, the nature of latitude and longitude and the need of these 
Final measurements. The final stage of geography, as a branch of 
stage, elementary instruction, is much more comprehensive than the 
preceding stages, and makes more frequent appeals to the judgment and 
the memory. The outline already given is to be reviewed and filled up. 
Political or social geography is then to be more fully and systematically 
taught; and the whole subject of the peculiarities and resources, together 
with the commercial and other relations of all the most important coun- 



GEOGRAPHY 131 

tries of the globe, is to be more fully shown. Geograpliical definitions are 
now desirable. These should be followed by a review of the outlines of 
astronomical geography, and then by a thorough training in the outKnes of 
. conjparative physical geography, as furnishing the only scientific 
qeoqraphu. ^^^^' ^"^^ *^^ ^"^^^ *^^® principles of scientific generalization, 

for the facts of political geography. This training should in- 
clude, at first, well-arranged exercises on simple physical maps of the hemi- 
spheres, great care being taken, at this stage, to furnish only so much of 
topography as is necessary for the lessons on descriptive comparative physi- 
cal geography, which should immediately follow. These descriptive lessons 
should be brief and clear, and should substantially include the following 
points in their proper order: (1) a comparison of the continents or grand 
divisions of the land in regard to position, form, size, and principal hori- 
zontal projections; (2) the comparison and classification of islands, the 
chief mountain systems, table-lands, and lowland plains; (3) the oceans 
and ocean currents, and the great rivers and lakes; (4) climate as affected 
by latitude, by elevation, and by winds and ocean currents; and (5) the 
general distribution of characteristic plants and animals, and of the races 
of mankind. All, or nearly all, of these may be profitably taught simply 
as physical facts to be known by observation. The study of the explanatory 
theories belongs to a higher stage of geographical knowledge. Each of the 
six grand divisions should now be considered in turn; first, in relation to 
the leading facts of its physical geography, including its surface, drainage, 
climate, and characteristic plants and animals, indigenous or exotic; and 
secondly, on the basis of these physical facts, in relation to the separate 
political subdivisions, their inhabitants, towns and cities, resources, com- 
merce, industrial development, government, and general social condition. 
Finally, a brief but comprehensive general review should bring out, in strong 
relief, the various interrelations of the different countries in regard to com- 
merce, government, race, language, and religion. 

III. As a general rule, the pupil should not begin the study of 
geography, at least, not what may be called map geography, until ten or 

eleven years of age. There are, however, geographical lessons, 
lessons ^^ ^ ^^^^ simple character, which may be profitably eiven to 

younger children. These should, according to the principles 
already stated, be pictorial and descriptive, approximating to object-lessons, 
in being designed to develop ideas rather than to impart knowledge. In 
relation to this stage of the instruction, Ourrie says, in Principles of 
Early School Education^ " The geography of the infant school is a series 
of object-lessons connected by a geographical link. It but prepares materials 
for the formal study of geography. It may be thought that the use of the 
map would facilitate this instruction; but it is quite immaterial whether 
the map be in the school or not. It is the business of the next stage of 
progress to localize all that has been learnt; which it does by going regularly 
over the map, and fixing down in position the countries, which as yet are 
only names to the children. The utmost use of the map that should be 
made in the infant school is to go over with the elder infants, if time 
permit, at the end of their course, on a physical map of the world, distinctly 
outlined so as to show the features of districts, the general outline of what 
they have learnt". If it were not for the early period at which most 



132 GEOGRAPHY 

chillren leave school, the regular study of geography might be profitably 
deferred considerably longer. Thj prevalent practice of thrusting the 
study of maps up<ni the time and attention of very young children has 
much to do with the general disgust of both pupils and teachers at the 
usual net results of its study. '1 he introductory course should occupy 
from a year to a year and a half; the subsequent course, from two and a 
half to three years. 

IV. The principles which should guide in the selection of methods of 
teaching this subject, have already been explained, and the difference 

between the synthetic and analytic systems has been defined. 

The following suggestive hints will prove valuable to practical 
teachers: (1) The memorizing of the details of maps vdihout sufficient 
descriptive matter, will leave no permanent impression on the mind; hence, 
(2) let the study of the map be subordinated to that of the other important 
facts, such as soil, climate, productions, etc., relating to the separate 
countries; and (3) let these facts be presented and studied in a uniform 
order, so that the pupils mind will always have a guide, both lor investiga- 
tion and oral desci iption. A special order of topics for this purpose has 
already been suggested. It must always be borne in mind, that in propor- 
tion as the pupil becomes interested in the particular country studied, he 
will desire to know more of its geographical details, and will remember 
them longer. Hence, the exhaustive study of the map should not precede 
all other lessons. After fully locating the country to be studied, by means 
of its boundaries, etc., the teacher may proceed with a description of some 
of its most striking features, passing from these to the more minute details 
of topography, as they are brought out by this description, until all the 
topographical and descriptive details are sufficiently learned. In considering 
the methods to be pursued in the study of geography, reference must also 
be made to the necessary appliances. For the first stages of the study a 
simple terrestrial globe and good wall-maps are indispensable. Eelief maps 
and relief globes, as now constructed and used, are of great value in giving 
correct ideas of the superficial configuration of different countries. As 
far as possible, each locality should have some associated idea interesting 
to th3 pupils. Whatever is taught should be frequently and systematically 
reviewed by careful questioning, so that the impressions made may be 
definite and lasting. In the first stage of geographical study, the teacher 
is obliged to do a large part of the work; in the later stage, the pupil 
should be trained to do as much as possible for himself. This subject, 
when properly taught, furnishes an excellent and necessary discipline for 
the memory. The illustrations of the text-book should be supplemented, 
if necessary, from other sources. Books of travel may be made one of the 
most powerful of auxiliaries in teaching geography. If the school possesses 
a cyclopoedia or gazetteer, it should be used for illustration or additional 
facts. No element in the successful teaching of geography is of greater 
importance than thorough reviews. These may take any one or more of 
a variety of forms too well known to need description. Cartography, or 
-. the drawing of neat and minutely accurate maps, is esteemed 

drawinq. ^^ niany experience 1 teachers as a valuable adjunct in fi;eograph- 

ical teaching; yet it is at least questionable whether the large 
expenditure of time required is fairly repaid by the value of the results. 



GEOLOGY 133 

The necessary topography raay be much more effectively memorized and 
reviewed by spirited exercises in drawing, or rapidly sketching, outline 
maps from memory, Of systems of mnp-drawing, for this purpose, there 
is a considerable variety, all having more or less merit; but the great 
des'uleratum in this part of the instruction is, that the relative sizes of 
countries and distances of places should, by means of it, be permanently 
impressed upon the memory. 'I'his constitutes what is sometimes called the 
coii^lractiiie method of teaching geography; upon which much dependence 
is placed in the German systems of instruction. For the aid of the pupil 
various djvices aro resorted to, some using the square, others a series of 
trial ^ulations. and still others a combination of these, in connection with 
arbitrary measures. For the literature of this subject, see Cydopczdia of 

GEOLOQ-Y (Gr. yea, yrj, the earth, and Aoyogy a discourse), the science 
which treats of th3 history of the earth. More exactly, it consists of a 
Ti ff f S^OM]) of sciences which treat of the materials of which the earth 
Jjejinmon. ^^ composed, and of the arrangement of these materials, whether 
superficial or deep-seated, and of their relations to one another; of the 
changes which the earth is undergoing at present, and of the series of 
changes through which it has heretofore passed. 

The general omission of geology from the course of instruction in high 

schools and colleges is much to be regretted; since, whether for the purpose 

Eluoa- of culture or information, it has many claims to consideration, 

tional a few of which are here suggested: (1) Of all sciences it most 

value, thoroughly cultivates a habit of inductive reasoning; (2) It so 

completely permaates physical geography, that a knowledge of its elements 

is essential to the intelligent comprehension of the latter; (3) It is obviously 

necessary and proper, while children are taught that the earth revolves 

around the sun, and other facts of the solar system, that they should also 

learn that the earth of to-day has had a long and eventful history and 

that the living forms upon it were not created at once as we find them 

now; (4) The practical applications of the truths of geology are not only 

of scientific interest and importance but of great general utility. 

If it is true that difficulty has arisen in communicating geological knowl- 
edge, it has, probably, been owing to two causes: (1) To a hesitation in 
telling the whole truth, and, (2) to a misconception, in teach- 
DifPcJi'ty ing^ ^g ^q what really constitutes the essential part of the science. 
'^''^geologu? -'■* ^^ customary among teachers to dwell upon the details of strata, 
fossils, etc., more than upon general underlying principles. The 
inculcation of the latter, at an early age, by reference to surrounding causes 
and effects, and in conjunction with the earliest lessons in physical geog- 
raphy, would lay a sure basis for the former, to be studied if desirable at a 
later date. If you wish to give a child fundamental ideas regarding val- 
leys and mountains make him see that every rain-storm carves out, in 
miniature, such surface features in the sand-heap and the clay-bank; and 
that it requires but a sufficient increase in the number of the rain-storms 
to increase indefinit«^ly the extent of their action. With a realization of 
the powers constantly at work producing such changes, the student will 
advance to an intelligent study of the rocks and of the fossils, as examples 
of some of the effects thus produced. See Cyclopoedia of Education, 



134 GEOMETEY 

GEOMETHY (Gr. yeufxerpia, from yea, 77/, the earth, and fxtrpelv, to 
measure), the science which treats of the properties and relations of 
magnitudes. We get the elements of this science as well as the word used 
to designate it from the ancient Greeks. Etymologically, the 
Dejimhon. y^Q^,^ jg synonpnous with our term land surveyirig, but it does 
not appear that it ever had simply this signification. As far back as we 
can trace the history of the subject, there appears to have been a body of 
theoretical truths and problems designated by this term. Thus, in the 
time of Plato, the word yeu/nerpia does not appear to have had any more 
specific reference to land measuring, than it has with us; for, when he 
spoke of God [Qebg) as geomeirizing^ he certainly had no reference to land 
surveying. But it is not the purpose of this article to trace the history of 
geometry, nor to give even a resume of its truths and methods. The ob- 
ject is to point out its place and function in a scheme of geneial education, 
and to offer certain practical suggestions in regard to the methods of teach- 
ing it. These will be presented in connection with the following inquiries 
and considerations. 

I. How should iJiis subject he approached, in the first instance, by the 

learner ? The proper reply to this is, he should first become acquainted 

Facts ^^^^ ^^^ leading facts of plane geometry, without any attempt at 

hefore scientific demonstration; notwithstanding the fact that the chief 
demonstra- excellence of geometry, as a means of mental improvement, lies 

tion. jjj j^g admirable body of practical logic. It is, in part, in conse- 
quence of this very fact that the learner should have an acquaintance with 
the fundamental truths of the science, as facts, before he attempts to reason 
upon them. It must be remembered that the logical faculty is not the 
inventive faculty. In general, its materials must be furnished it. Espe- 
cially is this true with reference to fundamental truths. 'J'he history of the 
development of science affords abundant proof that these truths are furnished 
to the logical faculty rather than by it. Thus, the theorems. If one straight 
line, meet another straight line, the sum of the angles formed equals two 
right angles; The sum of the angles of a triangle is tico right angles; The 
square described on the hypotenuse of a right-angled triangle is equivalent 
to the sum of the squares on the other two sides; TJie circumference of a 
circle is a little more than three times its diameter; and many others, were 
known to men as facts, and their practical significance was well understood, 
long before their logical connection, with axioms and definitions was traced. 
As it has been with the race, so it should be with the individual; the facts 
are needed as a basis for logical inquiry. We cannot reason about that 
concerning which we know little or nothing. Indeed, this principle has 
been almost universally acknowledged in the construction of our text-books 
on geometry upon the analytical rather than upon the synthetical model. 
From the time of Euclid, at least, to the present time, the custom has been 
to state each truth in formal proposition before attempting to demonstrate 
it; but this is not sufficient. The mere statements of such a truth does not 
give the ordinary mind a sufficiently clear and full apprehension of it to 
interest the attention or to guide the thought. AVhat is needed by the 
individual student is exactly what was possessed by the race, as antecedent 
Jllusira- to logical inquiry: he needs to know the fact, and to perceive its 

tions. practical significance, before he attempts to reason about it. For 



GEOMETRY 135 

example, if the tyro has learned by trial that he cannot take three given 
rods and, by placing their ends together, make triangles of different forms, 
he is prepared to understand and reason upon the fact that mutually equi- 
lateral triangles are equal. Again, if he has experimented with two sets 
of proportional rods, and found that he can combine them only into tri- 
angles of the same shape, he is prepared to be intelligently interested in the 
reasoning which proves that, if two triangles have their homologous sides 
propo7'tional , they are similar. And so of all the fundamental truths of 
plane geometry. Much of the superficial and merely mechanical, memoriter 
work which is done by pupils in geometry is caused by their having no 
adequate conception of the facts about which they are attempting to reason. 
Once show the pupil by measurement that the circumference of a given 
circle is a little over three times its diameter, and he will be induced to in- 
quire whether it is so in another, and finally if it is true in all circles. 
Again, let him draw several pairs of chords intersecting in a circle, and by 
actual measurement find that the segments are reciprocally proportional, 
and his curiosity naturally prompts him to inquire why this is so. Finally, 
a few illustrations of the mechanical value of the truths with which they 
are becoming familiar will, with most pupils, give added zest to their study 
and acquisition. To know that the brace stiffens the frame because the 
angles of a triangle cannot be changed without changing the sides, while 
those of a quadrilateral can; to see how the carpenter can square his foun- 
dation, calculate the length of his brace or rafter, on the principle that the 
square on the hypotenuse is equivalent to the sum of the squares on the 
two other sides of a right-angled triangle; how inaccessible heights, and the 
distances between inaccessible objects, can be determined by the property 
of similar triangles — these, and the like applications of the principles he is 
about to investigate, give an air of practical reality to the abstract specula- 
tions of the science, which will be found exceedingly helpful and stimulat- 
ing to the student. 

II. It should he home in mind that geometry is a mechanical as well 

as a logical science. No more mischievous mistake can be made than to 

underrate thQ prohlems of geometry; nevertheless this is not an 

nrhle<i ^^"^common practice with teachers. While some teachers permit 

* the pupil to omit these problems in construction altogether, 

others allow him the almost equally pernicious habit of describing the 

construction without actually performing the work according to the 

description. Thus, they allow him to tell how an angle is hisected without 

requiring him actually to bisect a given angle; they accept a clumsy 

description of the process of inscribing a circle in a triangle, illustrated by 

a free-hand caricature of the thing itself, instead of requiring a neat and 

accurate construction upon correct geometrical principles. Now, this is 

I geometry with the actual geometry left out. Nor is it simply that the 

'mere mechanical part (not an inconsiderable or unimportant part) is left 

out; but any critical examination of such pupils will usually show that the 

logical part is also omitted; in short, that the pupil neither comprehends 

the nature of the process and the reasons for its several steps, nor is 

actually able to execute it. While it is possible for a person to have the 

mechanical faculty in a high degree, and tolerably well cultivated, and yet, 

being deficient in the logical faculty, to fail of being a good geometrician, 



136 GEOMETRY 

it is equally possible, and, as the subject is too commonly taught it is quite 
common, to find those who have fair logical powers, or who have learned 
the formulas of logic, so destitute of mechanical ability or culture, that 
they utterly fail to appreciate tiie real spirit of geometry, even though they 
may know, and be able to demonstrate, its chief propositions. Nor are 
the skill and taste requisite to effect neat and accurate geometrical con- 
structions, attainments to be despised in securing an education. Shall we 
study the science of form, and not cultivate taste, eye, or hand in reference 
to form ? Shall we call a person proficient in the science of extension and 
form, who cannot construct a parallelogram, and whose taste and eye are 
so completely uneducated, that he cannot discriminate between a right 
ancrle and an angle of 85 or 95 degrees, and who cannot, with any degree 
of precision, construct either? Moreover, the zest which the construction 
of neat and accurate figures adds to the study, and the clearness of 
perception which is thus induced, are most helpful. In the course here 
recommended, a student will never be called upon to demonstrate a 
proposition in plane geometry, the figure for which he cannot construct 
upon geometrical principles; nor, in any well-conducted class, will the 
pupils pass any proposition, the figures for which they have not so 
constructed. It is not intended that every figure used for the purpose of 
demonstration should be thus constructed; but it is urged that the pupil 
should be able to construct every figure thus, and that he should frequently 
be required to do this; and, moreover, it is claimed that there is a positive 
power to investigate geometrical truth begotten of this method. Who 
that has ever attained any proficiency in geometrical investigation does 
not know the value of an accurately constructed figure ? This is, generally, 
the very first step in an original investigation, the construction itself often 
sugcresting the entire line of thought. 

III. But, passing from preliminaries, suppose the student ready to 
commence the study of the body of geometrical propositions which make 
Proper ^^P ^'^^ elements of geometry, and to learn how to demonstrate 
classijica- them. What should he find presented to him ? Most assuredly, 
Hon. a well classified arrangement of the subject m,atter is a prime 
requisite in a branch of study which enjoys the distinction of being the 
most perfect of the sciences. It is, however, a singular fact, that no such 
classification has been commonly found in our text-books. The solo 
principle of the arrangement in Euclid, which has prevailed for so many 
centuries, is to demonstrate at first such propositions as are elementary, 
and hence of essential use in subsequent demonstrations. Of course, such 
an order of sequence as this is a necessity; but is there not that in the 
nature of the subject matter which calls for a more scientific arrangement ? 
AVe venture to suggest the following: (1) The concepts of plane geometry 
are the straight line, the circumference of the, circle, and the angle; (2) The 
two fundamental inquiries are concerning magnitude 2Ln(\.form, the latter 
of which results from position. Bearing these statements in mind we 
shall commence with the simplest concept, the straight line. But shall 
our first inquiry be concerning magnitude, or concerning form or posi- 
tion? There are two ways of measuring a straight line: (1) the direct 
way, by applying one line to another, and (2) the indirect way, as in 
trigonometry, when, having two sides and an included angle of a triangle 



GEOMETRY 137 

given, vre determine the third side, etc, Now, in the first, there is 
little or no science, and the second is not elementary. Hence, we dismiss 
the question of magnitude, and turn to the question of position, which 
gives rise to form. Here we at once find legitimate objects of inquiry, 
and iha relUive position of two straight lines will be the first section. 
The subdivisions will be of perpendiculars, of oblique lines, of paral- 
lels. As these are all the positions that straight lines can occupy with 
reference to each other, we have exhausted this line of thought. Passing 
to the circumference, we dispose of the question o magnitude in exactly 
the same manner as we did in the case of the straight line. The direct 
measurement by the application of an arc involves no science; and the 
indirect, as when we determine the circumference from the radius, is a 
remote inquiry. Hence, the question of position recurs. Comparing the 
straight line and the circumference as to relative position, we find the 
elementary properties of chords, secants, and tangents. Comparing two 
circumferences as to relative position, we have external tangency, intersec- 
tion, internal tangency, or one wholly interior to the other; and thus we 
exhaust this line of inquiry. Reaching the angle, we find that the 
elementary method of measuring an angle (by an arc) is the fundamental 
object, while the relative position of angles is an unimportant inquiry. 
Hence, we treat the measurement of an angle by an arc; and have the 
elementary propositions concerning the angle at the center, the angle 
beticeen intersecting chords, the i7iscribed angle, the angle between two 
secants, etc. We thus complete the fundamental inquiries relating to the 
simple concepts, and proceed to treat them as combined in figures. The 
first inquiry now concerns the relative magnitudes of the sides and angles 
of a single figure; the second, the comparison of figures. Now, there are 
three ideas to be taken as bases of comparison; namely, (1) equality, (2) 
si/nilariti/, and (3) equivtlence; out of the last of which grows the idea 
of area. Having treated these topics, we have exhausted the subject of 
elementary plane geometry. No other elementary inquiry can arise; and 
no subsequent inquiries can be carried forward except on the basis of these. 
Thus wc have hastily sketched the outlines of a scientific arrangement; 
but our special purpose is to insist, that some logical order of sequence 
be impressed upon the mind of the student, whether it be this or some 
better one. 

IV. Hints concerning class-room work. — The order of arrangement 
in the treatment of a geometrical proposition should be early fixed in the 

student's mind; namely, (1) The general statement of the proposi- 

Order of ^j^j^. ^2) The illustration of this statement by reference to a par- 

merU. ' ticular diagram; (3) Any additional construction which may be 

necessary to the demonstration; (4) The demonstration proper. 
The exact language of the text-book should always be used in the statement 
of propositions, and in quoting definitions and all fundamental principles, 
unless such language is changed by the instructor or student for a particular 

reason; but the demonstration should not be memorized, although 
stration *^^® general order of thought should necessarily be retained, and 

the spirit and style of the language be preserved. The diagram 
should always be constructed on the blackboard by the pupil, without 
prompting from any source. When the construction is complete, he should 



138 GEOMETRY 

usually stand at the board, and trace the line of thought by pointing to the 
figure, as he proceeds in the demonstration. Some have thought it best to 

use the Arabic figures to designate points, lines etc., instead of the 
Diagram. cQ^pjtal letters, as ordinarily found in our text-books, the purpose 
being to prevent mere memorizing; but in reference to this, it is to be said 
that, besides its exceeding inelegance, and the fact, moreover, that the capital 
letters are a part of the language of the science, the device is of little or no 
use as a preventive of memorizing. It is quite as easy for a pupil who is 
so disposed, to memorize by the mere position or appearance of the parts, 
with figures to designate them, or even without any characters attached, as 
by means of letters. The pu[)il can make as perfect a parrot-like recitation, 

by merely memorizing every statement as referring to certain 
Eecitatton. ^^^^^ of the diagram, and by using the barbarous diction, "line 
this", " line that", etc., which may be heard in some class rooms, as he can 
in any other way. Our counsel is, use the lanr/uage of tlie science (the let- 
ters), and depend on something less superficial, to prevent all improper 
memorizing. Jn referring to antecedent j^ropositions constituting the basis 
of the argument, it is far more important that the proposition be quoted, 
than that its number be given; for the latter is of no sort of use except as 
a mere class-room convenience, while the former method is of essential 
service in bringing out the argument, and also in keeping the truths of the 
science fresh in the mind, and familiar on the tongue. Such methods 
should constitute the ordinary class-room drill; but there are others which 

must not be neglected, nor be unfrequent. First among these is 

Outline the eivinnr of outlines of demonstrations without goiuo; throudi 

strations ^^^^ details, and without reference to a diagram. This is one of 

the best tests of proficiency which can be a})plied, and the whole 
subject should be repeatedly reviewed in this way. Again, frequent reviews 
of groups of theorems without demonstrations are essential. 1'hus, the 
. teacher may call for the j)ropositions concerning equaliti/ of 

Jieview. fj^iangles, the elementary propositions concerning the measm'e- 
ment of angles, the propositions cowcQvmw^ parallels, etc. When a student 
is assigned such a topic, he should give all the facts embraced under it (defi- 
nitions, propositions, corollaries, and scholiums), without being prompted. 
These three classes of exercises will form the staple of all class-room work. 
For a final review, students may be set to tracing certain lines of 
thought running through the whole subject. Thus, given the subject of 
equality^ he will define it, distinguish it from nearly related notions, such 
as similarity and equivalence, show that the two latter notions make up the 
former, classify all the propositions of elementary geometry which relate to 
equality, and be able to give them with their demonstrations, pointing out 
any common principle which may seem to run through the demonstrations. 
In reference to the latter he will find that eqwditij is always proved by the 
mere application of one figure to the other, with the modification, that in 

case of equality by symmetry the figures are divided into parts, 
Equality -which parts are then applied as before. In like manner, he can 
^laritii^^' ^® ^^^ *^ study the subject of similarity » Such a study will not 

be merely a review of the section on equality, or that on similar- 
ity, since these ideas are the basis of the thought in many propositions where 
they do not constitute the main subject or purpose. lu fact, it will be found 



GEOMETRY 139 

that nearly one-half of the propositions of geometry involve one or the 
other of these notions (equality and similarity) as the basis of thought. 
Again he may be set to select and study the propositions relating to form, 
and then those in which magnitude is the object of inquiry: these two ideas 
dividing between them the whole domain of geometrical truth. Finally, 
it is of the highest importance, that, from first to last, the pupil be trained 
in the practical apph'cation of the abstract truths as fast as they 
Practical 2lyq learned. No truth is weU learned until it can be applied; 
I ^Wons^' ^^^ ^^ would be quite incredible to one who has not had large ob- 
servation, how fully one may appear to understand a geometrical 
truth, and yet be totally unable to apply it. The writer has examined in 
geometry hundreds of students desiring to enter college in " advanced stand- 
ing", and has made this a matter of careful observation. For example, he 
has usually asked such students, ' 'How do you find the area of a spherical 
triangle?" Generally the answer has been promptly given, "By multiplying 
the spherical excess by the tri-rectangular triangle"; and, quite generally, the 
candidate has been found able to demonstrate the proposition. But in no 
instance has the examiner ever found a student, who had not been trained 
in the practical application of the statement, able to compute the area of a 
triangle the angles of which are, say 110°, 94°, and 87°, on a sphere, the 
radius of which is 2 feet. In fact, they could tell what a tri-rectangular 
triangle is, what part of the sphere it is, and what the spherical excess is; 
but not one could actually find the number of square inches in the area of 
the triangle. A student may appear to have thoroughly mastered solid 
geometry, and yet be totally unable to solve such a problem as, To find how 
many barrels of water a cistern in the form of the frustum of a cone will 
contain. It is obvious, therefore, that the teacher of geometry should never 
allow his pupils to omit the practical examples. 

Y. Geometrical Invention. — This term is used to designate the power 
to discover demonstrations of propositions or the solution of problems. 
Many excellent teachers quite overrate the ordinary student's power in this 
direction. Some have even thought, that, from the first, a pupil can be led 
to discover the demonstrations of all the propositions. New classes may, in- 
deed, make commendable progress in geometry, and have put into 
Original their hands only the mere statement of propositions; but it will 
itont^' ^® found that they do not originate the demonstrations which 
they bring into the class; they simply look them up in other text- 
books, and thus learn them. After a pupil has acquired a considerable 
stock of geometrical knowledge, any real test will show that original 
demonstrations are but slowly evolved, even of the simplest propositions. 
Many students have little or no capacity in this direction; and, therefore, 
to make it the staple of geometrical teaching, would be supreme folly. Some 
exercise of this kind may, and should, be given from an early stage of the 
study; and students may be stimulated and helped in the work, so that all 
the ability for such exercise, which really exists in the class, may be 
brought out; but, after all, there is no reasonable ground to expect that 
any large amount of such ability can be developed in the majority of stu- 
dents of elementary geometry. Certainly, this is not the purpose for which 
geometry holds its eminent place in the curriculum of our colleges. It is 
that students may learn what a logical argument is and how to frame it, 



140 GERMAN LANGUAGE 

from the study of such arguments, carefully elaborated and expressed by 
the ripest culture. What but the most clumsy work can be expected from 
the tyro in framing such arguments, if he has not had much study of the 
best models ? To put a demonstration in good form, as well as to evolve 
it, is the ripest fruit of scholarship, not the daily work of beginners; the 
ability to do either is to be acquired, in the first instance, by a protracted 
and careful study of the work of masters. It is not the purpose of these 
remarks to discourage all attempts to secure original demonstrations, but to 
guard against a serious error into which enthusiastic and ambitious teach- 
ers are in danger of falling; and the conclusion is, that, for the most part, 
pupils must be furnished with the demonstrations of elementary geometry, 
either by a text-book, or by the hints of a competent and judicious teacher; 
and that it is best that it should be so. But let not this topic of geometrical 
invention be confounded with that of practical exercise in applying the 
truths learned. The latter is, as has been said, essential for all, but especially 
important for those who are dull of apprehension. 

VI. Lastly, it is to be remarked that a great change has come about 

within the last century, in reference to the kind of demonstration which is 

, admissible in geometry. Formerly, geometricians were totally 

ad^ti^e ^"^^^^^ ^^ admitting any conception of motion or lime into a 

geometrical argument. These were rigidly excluded as foreign to 

the subject and as defiling its purity. Both are now freely admitted. 

Again, the infinitesimal method was formerly as rigidly excluded, but is 

now coming to be admitted. These methods greatly facilitate geometrical 

inquiry, and are now freely used by the best writers and teachers. (See 

Mathematics.) 

GERMAN LANGUAGE. The German language ranks, with the 

English and French, in value and importance, above all the other lan- 

guages of the civilized world. It is very extensively studied in 

Bank, ^j^^ literary institutions of every civilized country, and as a 

department of school and college instruction, continues to assume, from 

year to year, greater prominence. 

The method of studying German, in English and American universities, 
colleges, seminaries, and academies is about the same as that pursued in 
the study of French. The most important feature which broadly 
of^studv ^distinguishes the German language from the French, and which 
'^' an intelligent teacher will always keep in view from the very 
first lesson he gives, is the close resemblance between German and English 
words, especially those used in common life. Many of these words are 
spelled exactly alike; large classes of other words show so slight a modifica- 
tion, that the pupils recognize them at once (as Voter ^ Midler^ Bruder, 
Buch, Hans), and still others present changes made according to certain 
laws which are easily understood, even at the earliest stage of instruction, 
and by the most youthful beginner (as 3ekn, ten; Ziiin, tin; Tag, day; 
sagen^ say). By a skillful use of this extensive resemblance of the two 
languages, the intelligent teacher has it in his power to give to the 
beginner, in a few lessons, the command of a very large number of words. 
The strange letters which seem to surround the first lessons in German 
with considerable difficulty, are quite easily learned by the aid of words 
which are substantially the same in German as in English. Whole Germao 



GERMAK LANGUAGE 141 

sentences can, in this way, be at once understood; and when translation 
forms a prominent object of the study, the pupil should begin to translate 
from German into English, as soon as he knows the letters. For exercise 
in the declensions and conjugations, the selection of cognate words for the 
paradigms likewise facilitates the progress of the pupils. In this part of 
the grammar, German at once seems to the beginner to be more com- 
plicated than English, and presents to him the greatest difficulties he has 
to surmount; among which may be enumerated the following: (1) The 
noun in German has four cases, and the plural is formed in four different 
ways as far as its termination is concerned, besides modifying the radical 
vowel; (2) Adjectives and adjective pronouns are declined in three different 
ways; (3) The past participle generally adds the prefix ge, and, in compound 
verbs, this prefix, in many cases, is placed between the verb and the particle 
with which it is compounded, or the particle is detached and placed at the 
close of even a long sentence. In constructing exercises for the study of 
these differences, it will again be found a help to choose for the paradigms 
words similar to English words, or such as are common to both languages, 
so that the attention of the pupil may be concentrated upon the learning 
of the inflectional peculiarities. It is, however, not only the resemblance 
of German and English words, but also other points of similarity, in the 
etymology of the two languages, that should be made use of. Thus the 
possessive case of English nouns may be made to illustrate not only the 
German genitive, but the entire declension, of which the English possessive 
is a remnant. A reference to the plural forms men, wom,en,feet, geese, 
mice, will explain the modification of a large number of German nouns in 
the plural; as will also such forms as children, brethren, d^ud pence. The 
fact that the division of verbs into strong and weak is the same in both 
languages, that the formation of the principal parts of both is similar [see, 
saw, seen — se-hen, sah, ge-sehen; love, loved, loved — lieh-en, liehte, ge-liebt) 
and that even, as a general rule, the same verbs belong, in both languages, 
to the one or to the other conjugation, is easily comprehended even by 
beginners, and greatly assists them to understand the structure of the 
foreign language. 

The comparison of the German language with the English should not 
be limited to the points just mentioned; but all the peculiar features of 
German should be noticed. In the study of any foreign language, 
German ^ clear understanding of the most conspicuous characteristics helps 
Enaiish ^ ^^ ^^ ^^^ mind a clear conception of the language. Among 
the features of the German grammar to which special attention 
should be called, when they are met with for the first time, are the follow- 
ing: (1) The gender of nouns is arbitrary, and many nouns that are neuter 
in English are either masculine or feminine in German; (2) One or more 
long qualifying adjuncts may intervene between the article and its noun; 
f^) The order of sequence of auxiliary verbs is entirely reversed in subjunct- 
ive propositions; (4) Prepositions and verbs govern three different cases of 
the noun; (5) The object jjrecedes the verb more frequently than in English. 
The correct pronunciation of German, as of every foreign tongue, must 
be learned by imitating the teacher. This is especially the case with the 
Pronun- sounds that have no equivalent in English, as 6*, il, ch, the 
ciation. guttural g, short o, r, and the combinations of sp and 5^ Their 



142 GIFTS 

number is comparatively small; and, if they are steadily practiced, 
it Avill require only a short time to learn to enunciate them correctly. For 
a full treatment of this subject, see Cyclopcedia of Education. 

GIFTS, Kindergarten, the term used by Froebel to designate the 
apparatus devised by him for kindergarten instruction, inasmuch as they 
. are not used by the teacher but given to the children, as the 
Defininon, jj^^terial for interesting and instructive occupation, by the 
manipulation of which their faculties are unfolded in accordance with the 
developing metJiod (q. v.). These gifls are grouped in sets, numbered from 
1 to 20, and include the following, of which, however, Kos. 8 to 20 did 
not originate with Froebel directly: (1) Six soft balls of various 

UmT^' ^o^^^^? ^^6 object of the use of which is to teach color (primary 
and secondary), and direction (forward and backward, right and 
left, up and down); also to train the eye, and to exercise the hands, arms, 
and feet in various plays. (2) Sphere, cube, and cylinder, designed to teach 
form, by directing the attention of the child to resemblances and diiferences 
in objects. This is done by pointing out, explaining, and counting the sides, 
edges, and corners of the cube, and by showing how it differs, in these 
respects, from the sphere and cylinder. The manipulation by the child 
should, of course, precede this demonstration by the teacher. The child's 
self-activity will prompt it to place these forms in various positions and 
combinations, so as to realize in its conceptions every thing that *is 
analogous or dissimilar in them. (3) A large cube divided into eight 
equal cubes, the object being to teach both form and number, also to give 
a rudimental idea of fractions. (4) A large cube divided into eight oblong 
blocks, designed to teach number and a simple variety of form (cube and 
parallelopiped). (5) A large cube divided into 27 equal cubes, three of 
the latter being subdivided into half cubes, and three others into quarter 
cubes (forming triangular prisms). This is a further continuation and 
complement of (3), but affording much ampler means of combination both 
as to form and number. (6) A large cube so divided as to consist of 18 
whole oblong blocks, three similar blocks divided lengthwise, and six 
divided breadthwise, — a still further continuation of the ideas involved 
in (3). (7) Triangular and quadrangular tablets of polished wood, afford- 
ing the means of further exercise in reversing the position of forms and 
combining them; and presenting, in addition, illustrations of plane 
siirfaces, instead of solids, as in the previous gifts. This arrangement, 
placing the surfaces after the solids, recognizes an important principle of 
education, — that we should pass from the concrete to the abstract (see 
Form), the square being a side of the cube, and a triangle deduced from 
the prism. (8) Sticks for laying, — wooden sticks about 13 inches long, 
to be cut into various lengths by the teacher or pupil, as occasion may 
require. These sticks, like most of the previous gifts, are designed to 
teach numerical proportions. The multiplication table may be practically 
learned by means of this gift. The forms of the letters of the alphabet, 
and the Roman and Arabic numerals, may also be learned. (9) Rings 
for ring-layi7ig, consisting of whole and half rings of various sizes, in wire, 
for forming figures; designed to develop further ideas of form, also to 
afford a means for developing constructiveness of the pupils, and practice 
in composing simple designs. (10) Drawing slates and paper, consisting 



GIRLS — GLOBE 143 

of slates ruled in squares, and paper ruled in squares, for the purpose of 
enabling the pupil to draw or copy simple figures, in a methodical manner, 
the ruling aiding them in the adjustment of proportions. (11) Perforat- 
ing paper, ruled in squares on one side only, with perforating needles, 
affording more advanced practice in producing forms, and executing 
simple designs. (12) Embroidering rtiaterial, to \>q used for transferring 
the designs executed on the perforating paper, by embroidering them 
■with colored worsted or silk on card board. (13) Paper for cutting: 
squares of paper are folded, cut according to certain rules, and formed into 
figures. The child's inclination for using the scissors is thus ingeniously 
turned to account, and made to produce very gratifying results. (14) 
Weaving paper: strips of colored paper are, by means of a steel or 
wooden needle of peculiar construction, woven into a differently colored 
sheet of paper, which is cut into strips throughout its entire surface, 
except a margin at each end to keep the strips in their places. A very 
great variety of figures is thus produced, and the inventive powers of 
the child are constantly brought into requisition. (15) Plaiting material, 
including sets of flats for interlacing so as to form geometrical and 
fancy figures. (16) Jointed slats (gonigraphs), for forming angles and 
geometrical figures. (17) Paper for intertwining: paper strips of various 
colors, eight or ten inches long, folded lengthwise, used to represent a 
variety of geometrical and fancy figures, by plaiting them according to 
certain rules. (18) Paper for folding, consisting of square, rectangular, 
and triangular pieces, with which variously shaped objects may be formed. 
(19) Material for peas ivork, consisting of wires of various lengths pointed 
at the ends, which are passed through peas, that have been soaked in water 
for six or eight hours; these are then used to imitate various objects and 
geometrical figures. Cork cubes are sometimes used instead of the peas, 
as being more convenient. (20) Material for modeling: modeling knives, 
of wood, and modeling boards, by means of which various forms are 
modeled in bees-wax, clay, putty, or some other soft substance. These 
gifts thus represent every kind of technical activity, from the mere collec- 
tion of the raw material to the delicate processes of design as well as plastic 
. art. They are designed to develop not only the constructive 
Design. ^]^i[[ij of the pupil, through his natural impulse to activity, and 
by the exercise of the faculty of conception, so characteristic of childhood, 
but by their countless combinations of color and form to lay the foundation 
for a complete development of the esthetic nature. They address, at once, 
his intellect, his emotions, and his physical activities; while, as the child 
works out the results himself, he gains confidence in his own ability to 
surmount obstacles, and thus learns an enduring lesson of self-reliance. 
Kindergarten gifts and occupation material suitable for schools or families, 
are put up in sets and sold in boxes convenient for use. 

GIRLS, Education of. See Female Education. 

GLOBE, Artificial (Latin, globus), a hollow sphere, made of metal, 
plaster, or pasteboard, used as a model of the earth, and having delineated 
upon it all the various natural and political divisions of the terrestrial sur- 
face, together with the circles, etc., used in mathematical geography. 
Through its center, runs an iron axis the two ends of which project, and 
are fastened to a circle, or ring, of brass, within which the globe can be 



144 GONIGBAPH — GOTEHNMENT 

turned around. This ring, called the brazen meridian, is graduated so as 
to indicate degrees of latitude, and by rotating the globe can be made to 
represent the meridian of any place. 1 he artificial globe is also usually 
surrounded with a broad horizontal ring of wood, called the woodt7i horizon, 
which has two slots in which the meridian, and with it the globe move, so 
that either pole may be elevated or depressed, and the horizon adapted to 
any place. 1 he upper surface of the wooden horizon is divided inio several 
concentric circles, representing degrees of amplitude and azimuth, signs of 
the zodiac, the points of the compass, the divisions of the year into months 
and days. etc. Such a globe is called a terrestrial globe. A ce/e.-^/m/ globe 
differs from it in repiesenting the appearance of the starry heavens, constel- 
lations, etc., as if seen from the center of the globe. Globes of much 
simpler construction are made for elementary instruction. 

GONIGRAPH (Gr. yuvia, an angle, and ypacpeiv, to write), an in- 
strument used in kindergarten exercises and in object-teaching, to illustrate 
the nature and formation of angles and polygons. It consists of a series 
of narrow jointed slats of equal length, by the different combinations of 
which figures of various shapes may be formed. The number of slats, or 
links, varies from 3 to as many as 16, or even more. As a piece of kinder- 
garten apparatus (gift), the gonigraph may be made the means of much 
instructive entertainment to a young child, who from its manipulation will 
acquire ideas of a great variety of figures. In the more advanced object- 
teaching, in connection with the subject oiform, it will be found very use- 
ful, as well as attractive. Gonigraphs are usually sold in sets as a part of 
the apparatus necessary for kindergarten work. (See Gifts.) 

GOVERNMENT, School, like the government of a state, must be 

based upon the establishment of authority, which includes not only 

. the right to make laws, but the power, as well as the right, to 

asis. execute them. These powers, in every civilized state and com- 
munity, are distributed among different persons, so as to prevent central- 
ized authority leading to despotism; but, in the little community of the 
school room, they must, to a greater or less extent, be possessed by one 
person. General rules for the management of a school, it is true, may be 
prescribed by the school officers to whom the teacher is amenable: but the 
actual government of the school, that which converts it from a chaotic, dis- 
orderly crowd of children into a regular organization, under control and 
discipline, must be exclusively the work of the teacher, hence called the 
school-master. Force of character in the teacher is the basis of discipline. 
"Divest teaching", says Kellogg, in School Ma7iagement {1880), "of the 
personal force element, and of the subtle influence of the teacher, and little 
is left". 

The character of the school government depends upon the manner as 
well as the degree in which the teacher's authority is established; and the 
influence of the school upon the intellectual and moral character of its 
pupils will depend upon the kind of government maintained, 
d^endent ^^ school can be efficient without order, and order can only 
' result from judicious and effective government. The latter must, 
in all cases, depend upon (1) the rules or requirements laid down, and 
(2) the manner in which they are enforced. Government is of ten impaired 
by unwise legislation — unwise in the kind of laws enacted, or in their 



GOVERNMENT 145 

number. The rules made for the government of a school should be as few 
and as simple as possible. A multiplicity of set regulations confuses the 

pupils, and tends to multiply offenses. Besides, the children, 
Mules, l^y ^j^^ habit of complying with a kind of written law, are apt 
to think every thing right that is not specifically forbidden, and thus fail 
to exercise their conscience; that is, in their attention to the malaprohibita, 
they lose sight of the mala per se. " If a school", says D. P. Page, "is to 
be governed by a code of laws, the pupils will act upon the principle that 
whatever is not proscribed is admissible. Consequently, without inquir- 
ing whether an act is right, their only inquiry will be, is it forbidden ? 
Now, no teacher was ever yet so wise as to make laws for every case; the 
coasequence is, he is daily perplexed with unforeseen troubles, or with some 
ingenious evasions of his inflexible code. In all this matter, the worst 
feature is tha fact that the child judges of his acts by the law of the teacher 
rather than by the law of his conscience, and is thus in danger of pervert- 
ing and blunting the moral sense". Government by positive enactments 
is, therefore, to be dispensed with as much as possible; but such rules as 
are made should be strictly and uniformly enforced. These rules constitute 
what may be called school legislation., and are not to be confounded with 
requirements of a less formal character, which the pupil's own intelligence 
and sense of right are to be trained to recognize without particular enunci- 
ation, nor with those moral precepts which are addressed rather to the 
pupil as an individual, and therefore do not directly concern the organiza- 
tion of the school. We here treat of school government in the strict sense 

of the term. In the enforcement of school legislation, however, 
mmt^' ^^ ^^^ *^ keQ]y in view the good of the pupil as well as the good 

of the school, but primarily the latter. The principle is this: The 
school is an organization designed to be the means of affording an education 
to a large number of pupils, and the school laws are made to protect that 
organization, and render it effective in the carrying out of its proper object; 
hence, the welfare of the school must be paramount to that of any 
individual pupil. The violation of a rule may, indeed, be sometimes over- 
looked without injury to the offender, perhaps to his benefit; but, as such 
a course tends tc weaken or destroy the school government, the law must 
be uniformly enforced. No enforcement of law can be accomplished with- 
out the punishment of the offender; hence, the kind of school punishments 
that are suitable under the various circumstances that arise becomes a 
matter for the careful consideration of the teacher. Whether in enforcing 
obedience to wholesome regulations, corporal punishment should be resorted 
to, and, if so, to what extent and in what manner, forms also an important 
part of the general discussion of school government. But there must be 
prevention as well as correction — rewards, as incentives to obedience and 
good conduct, as well as punishments to chastise the wrong doer, and deter 

others from wrong-doing. A system of rewards has a very 
Rewards. ii^pQ^t^nt bearing upon school government when they are dis- 
pensed with uniformity and equity. Under this head are included merit 
marks, certificates and diplomas of proficiency and good conduct, and 
prizes. Many questions arise in connection with the administration of 
school government in this respect. The general efficacy and propriety of 
rewards cannot be doubted. They appeal to a principle of human nature 



146 GOVERNMENT 



■ 



universally operative. ''Whatever", says Jewell, " may be possible in the 
mature man, in the line of that sublime abstraction, 'Virtue is its own 
reward', the child is neither equal to such abstractions, nor are they 
demanded of him". 

The efficacy of school government must depend veiy much on the 

manner in which the teacher exercises the authority conferred upon 

him in virtue of his office. If he bases it upon force, if 

Conduct of ^jjg language he addresses to his pupils be uniformly that 

e eacier. ^^ command, threatening, or angry rebuke, there will be 
engendered in their minds a feeling of antagonism, from which wiU 
result disobedience, and occasionally open rebellion. On the other hand, 
if he is kind and considerate, but at the same time firm and resolute, 
he will gain first the respect of his pupils and then their affection. 
When that is accomplished, the government of his school will be quite 
easy. (See Authority.) The following are wise suggestions in regard 
to the proper course of the teacher in obtaining and preserving 

Sugges- ^-^q control of his school: "(I) Endeavor to convince your 
scholars that you are their friend, — that you aim at their 
improvement, and desire their good. It will not take long to satisfy 
them of this, if you are so in reality. (2) Never give a command 
which you are not resolved to see obeyed. (3) Try to create through- 
out the school a popular sentiment in favor of order and virtue. It is 
next to impossible to carry into effect, for any length of time, a reg- 
ulation, however important, which is opposed to public opi7iion". Fel- 
lenberg strongly insists upon this as the most efficient means of school 
government. "The pupil", he says, "can seldom resist the force of truth 
when he finds himself condemned by the common voice of his com- 
panions, and is often more humbled by censure from his equals, than 
by any of the admonitions of his superiors". To the above important 
injunctions for the teacher should be added the following: Observe in 
your conduct toward your pupils a strict impartiality. Children are 
keen observers, and at once detect the slightest indications of favoritism; 
and nothing more effectually than this destroys their respect for the 
teacher, and undermines his authority. Tact and self-control will enable 
the teacher to dispense, to a very great extent, with any decided dem- 
onstration of authority. "There is", says Page, " such a thing as keep- 
ing a school too still by over-government. A man of firm nerve can, 
by keeping up a constant constraint both in himself and pupils, force a 
death-like silence upon his school. You can hear a pin drop at any 
time, and the figure of every child is as if moulded in cast-iron. But 
be it remembered, this is the stillness of constraint, not the stillness of 
activity. There should be silence in school, a serene and soothing quiet; 
but it should, if possible, be the quiet of cheerfulness and agreeable 
devotion to study, rather than the 'palsy of fear'". (See Fear.) One 
of the most important means of effective school government is to keep 
the pupils constantly busy, to awaken in their minds an interest in their 
studies, to vary the exercises so as to prevent tedious monotony, to have 
special methods of relief, after their minds have become wearied by 
close attention. For this purpose, in primary schools, in which very young 
children are taught, movement exercises of a simple character may be 



GEADE — GRADED SCHOOLS 147 

resorted to; and, iu all schools, vocal music, which always exerts the most 
pleasing and satisfactory influence. Calisthenics and gymnastics may be 
employed with good effect. In short, if the school is conducted in such a 
way as to recognize the peculiar nature, disposition, and wants of children, 
the school government will be found to involve but little difficulty. 

GKADE (Lat. gradus, a step) , the relative standing of schools, classes, 
or pupils, in a system of education. Thus education, or instruction, is 
designated, according to its grade, primary or elementary, secondary, and 
superior or higher. A course of study is divided into grades for conveni- 
ence in classification, all the pupils in each class being supposed to be 
nearly of the same degree of proficiency. The number of grades into which 
a course of study should be divided is dictated by considerations of expedi- 
ency and convenience. The grades, however, should be arranged so as to 
assign proper proportions of work for the several portions of time into 
which the school year, or the period of the entire curriculum, is divided. 
The arrangement of grades is also beneficial in definitely marking the prog- 
ress of the pupil, and thus affording him encouragement to proceed by 
regular promotion from grade to grade. (See Class.) 

GRADED SCHOOLS are usually defined as schools in which the 
pupils are classified according to their progress in scholarship as compared 
Tt ^ ■ • with a course of study divided into grades, pupils of the same or 
Definition. ^ similar degree of proficiency being placed in the same class. 
An ungraded school, on the other hand, is one in which the pupils are 
taught individually, each one being advanced as far and as fast as circum- 
stances permit, without regard to the progress of other pupils. The graded 
system is thus based upon classification; and its efficacy as a system must 
depend very greatly upon the accuracy with ivhich the classifica- 
anddasses ^^^^ ^^^ ^®®^^ made. Grades, however, are not to be confounded 
* with classes; the former are divisions of the course of study 
based upon various considerations, the latter are divisions of the school 
based upon uniformity of attainments. In a small school, the same number 
of grades may be needed as in a large school, the course of study being the 
same, and the promotions being made with equal frequency; hence, as the 
number of classes must be smaller, it wiU be necessary that each class 
should pursue two or more grades simultaneously or in succession; that is 
to say, the promotions from grade to grade will be more frequent than 
from class to class. On the other hand, in a large school, the number of 
classes may be greater than that of the grades, which will necessitate the 
forming of two or more classes, under separate teachers, in the same grade. 
In the management of a large school, this will be found to be better than 
a subdivision of the grades, requiring either an extension of the time for 
completing the course, or greater frequency in the promotions. 

The advantages of the graded system have been thus enumerated: 

(I) They economize the labor of instruction; (2) They reduce the cost of 

instruction, since a smaller number of teachers are required for 

fvSem' 6ff^cti"^6 "^^o^^ i^ ^ classified or graded school; (3) They make 

' the instruction more effective, inasmuch as the teacher can more 

readily hear the lessons of an entire class than of the pupils separately, 

and thus there will be better opportunity for actual teaching, explanation, 

drill, etc.; (4) They facilitate good government and discipline, because all 



148 GRADUATE — GRAMMAR 



1 



the pupils are kept constantly under the direct control and instruction of 
the teacher, and, besides, are kept constantly busy; (5) They afford a better 
means of inciting pupils to industry, by promoting their ambition to excel, 
inasmuch as there is a constant competition among the pupils of a class, 
which cannot exist when the pupils are instructed separately. On the other 
hand, many objections have been urged against the system of graded schools, 
chief among which is, that the interests of the individual pupil are often 
sacrificed to those of the many, the individual being merged in the mass. 

GRADUATE (Lat. graduare, from gradus, a step or degree), to con- 
fer an academic degree, thus advancing to a higher rank in scholarship; 
also, to receive a degree from a college or university, A person is said to 
graduate when he takes a degree, and the college or university is said to 
oraduate a student when it admits him to an honorable standing as a scholar 
by conferring a degree. The person who thus takes a degree, is called a 
graduate. (See Degrees.) 

GRAMMAR. The study of grammar now constitutes, in every 
civilized country, an essential part of the learning of languages, both the 
vernacular and foreign. Opinions, however, still widely differ as to the 
place which grammar should occupy in the study of language, the method 
by which it should be taught, the point of time at which it should be 
begun, and the amount of time which should be devoted to it. There is 
at present a more general agreement among educators than at any previous 
time, that not only is a grammatical knowledge necessary for a good 
command of any language, but that thorough training in the rules of 
grammar is one of the best means to develop the faculties of the mind, 
and is especially calculated to promote correct and logical thinking. (See 
Grammak, English; English, Study of.) For a full treatment of this 
subject see Cyclopcedia of Education. 

GRAMMAR, English. Probably, there is no subject that has 
been taught with so great a disregard of the fundamental principles of 
teaching as English grammar; and there is certainly none that 
Errors. -^^^ g^ imperfectly attained its practical aim — correctness in 
the use of language. This has arisen from two errors of procedure: (1) an 
attempt to teach definitions without develojnng in the minds of the pupils 
the ideas underlying them, and rules previous to an illustration of their 
necessity; and (2) confining the instruction to merely theoretical and 
critical work, without sufficient practice in the application of principles 
and rules to the actual use of language. The introduction of analysis was 
the result of an effort to reform the first of these errors; and the 
Analysis, language-lesson system, a reaction against the second. Grammar 
being, distinctively, the science of the sentence., the preliminary step in all 
grammatical instruction must be, to give to the pupil a clear and correct 
idea of what constitutes a sentence, by presenting for his examination and 
analysis examples of sentences of a simple structure, by analyzing which he 
will easily be made to see what principal parts must enter into their com- 
position, and how other parts are used as adjuncts. (See Analysis, 
Grammatical.) 'I'he outline of a complete scheme of teaching 
System of grammar in all its stages is presented in the following points: 
grammar (^) Principles, definitions, and rules should be progressively 
taught by requiring the pupil to analyze, and also to compose, 



GRAMMAR 149 

classified sentences commencing with those of the simplest construction, 
and passing gradually to such as are of tha most complex structure ; (2) No 
definition or rule should be committed to memory and formally recited 
until the pupil, by sufficient practice, has obtained a clear conception of 
the office of the word defined, and the nature of the usage which the rule 
is intended to guide. For example, it is absurd to try to teach a child the 
meaning of a participle or a relative pronoun at an elementary stao-e of the 
instruction, because the structures in which alone they can occur are too 
complex to be understood at that stage. And it is equally absurd to 
require a child to commit to memory the rule, " A verb must agree 
with its subject or nominative in person and number", until bv the 
comparison of a number of sentences illustrating this usage, he is made to 
understand what is meant by agreement in grammar, and how expressions 
may be incorrect by a failure to observe this rule. According to this 
method, the pupil is first made acquainted with the distinction of subject 
and predicate, as being the essential parts of every sentence. This forms 
the basis for teaching him the two parts of speech, — the verb and the 
noun. From this point, the sentence may be complicated by the successive 
insertion of modifying words, phrascS, or clauses, so as to illustrate not 
only the nature and use of each of the parts of speech, but every peculiar 
structure. This may be illustrated by the following example of a sentence 
thus expanded: (1.) Boys learn. (2) The boys learn. (3) The studious 
boys learn. (4) The studious boys learn rapidly. (5) The studious boys 
learn their lessons. (6) The studious boys learn their lessons in school. 
(7) The boys aiid girls learn. (8) The boys learn, but the girls do not 
learn. (9) The boys who study will learn. Of course, each sentence here 
given is only a specimen of what may be used at each step; and when these 
several steps have been taken, the pupil will have acquired a knowledge of 
the functions of the different parts of speech. Thus, in (1), he learns the 
noun and the verb; in (2), the article is added; in (3), the adjective; in (4), 
the adverb; in (5), the pronoun; in (6), the preposition; in (7), the con- 
junction, as a connective of words; in (8), the conjunction, as a connective 
of sentences; in (9), the relative pronoun. After much preliminary oral 
instruction of this kind the pupil may be required to learn simple defi- 
nitions. Underlying the whole process, it will be perceived, is the 
analysis of the sentence, parsing coming in at a later stage, as the appli- 
cation to particular sentences, according to a given praxis, of the defini- 
tions and rules learned. This is the method recommended by 
Analysis prominent educators of the present day. " The analysis of a 
varslna sentence", says Wickersham, " consists in finding its elements, 
or in reducing it to the parts of speech, of which it is composed. 
Parsing consists in finding out these parts of speech and determining their 
properties and relations. Both should be combined, as is the case in 
similar operations in other sciences. The botanist analyzes a plant, and 
then names and describes its several parts. The anatomist dissects a sub- 
ject, and then characterizes the organs thus brought to his notice. Grammar 
can be studied successfully in no other way. Parsing, without a preceding 
analysis, can lead but to a very imperfect knowledge of the organic 
structure of sentences". To the value of the analytical method, Prof. 
Whitney thus be^irs witness: " Give m§ a, mm who can, with full in- 



150 . GRAMMAR SCHOOLS 

telligence, take to pieces an English sentence, brief and not too complicated 
even, and I will welcome him as better prepared for further study in other 
languages than if he had read both Cfesar and Virgil, and could parse them 
in the routine style in which they are often parsed". Parsing should not 
be made a routine; when it becomes such, it is worse than useless. The 
constant application of complicated definitions and rules derived from a 
language of inflections, to English words and sentences having scarcely an 
inflection, is to the pupil a senseless process, and must only tend to dull, 
instead of cultivating and sharpening, his intellectual faculties. It makes 
him, as has been said, a "parsing machine". The definitions and rules of 
English grammar should be simplified, recognizing the fact that 
Definitions jtjnglish is not an inflectional language, except in a very few 
* particulars; and hence, that the principles of agreement and 
government have scarcely any application. The multiplying of rules that 
regulate nothing is idle. Thus, of what use it is to cause a child to repeat, 
in parsing, twenty times perhaps in a single lesson, the so-called syntactical 
rule. "Adjectives relate to nouns and pronouns", when he has already 
learned as a definition that "Adjectives are words added to nouns and 
pronouns?" A large portion of the rules of syntax laid down in most 
text-books are rather a repetition of the definitions comprehended in ety- 
mology than separate rules necessary to guide us in the construction of 
sentences. All such needless machinery should be eliminated. The appli- 
cation of the terms cn^c, gender, person, and all other designations ot in- 
flectional variations of words, should be kept within the narrow limits 
prescribed by the simplicity of the language. In most systems of grammar, 
however, we find these terms used in so ambiguous a way as almost 
hopelessly to obscure the subject and perplex the learner. Sometimes, for 
example, case is used to indicate a form or inflection, at others, a mere 
relation Avithout change of form ; while the fact to be taught is, that where 
there is no inflection there is no case. The rule that " a noun which is 
the subject of a verb must be in the nominative case" is, in English, 
useless and absurd. The senseless machinery of English grammar, as it 
has been generally taught, has brought the whole subject under reproba- 
tion, as being useless in an elementary school curriculum, and as superseded 
in that of the high school and college, by the study of Latin; while there is 
no doubt that college graduates, in the United States, are generally in 
nothing so deficient as in a practical and critical knowledge of their own 
language. While it is very true that the use of ever}' language is a matter 
of habit rather than of rule; every writer and speaker knows, that there 
are myriads of instances in which tlic ear and the memory, however trained 
by habit, will not serve as a guide, and that a knowledge of the principles 
and usages of language in regard to nice points of construction, is in- 
dispensable. *' Since language", says Currie. " is the instrument of all 
thought, a more commanding knowledge of it than habit alone can give 
must be deemed a necessity of education, and particularly of all education 
which pretends to cultivate the mind". 

GRAMMAR SCHOOLS, so called, not because they gave instruction 
in English grammar, but from the fact of their making the teaching of 
Latin and (ilreek — particularly, and sometimes exclusively, the former — 
their especial aim, existed in England fronj tlie earliest times. They dis- 



GREEK LANGUAGE 151 

charged tlic same function as the "old cathedral schools or the cloister 
schools of the monasteries,^ and were established and supported either by 
the endowments of benevolent individuals, or by governmental appropria- 
tions. In England, the endowed grammar schools are very numerous and 
many of quite ancient foundation. 

Grammar schools, in the United States, were originally of the same 
character as in England and Scotland. The gradual development of the 
common-school system in the United States, joined with the partial decline 
of Latin and Greek as instruments of education, and the demand for studies 
of a more practical character, that is, more in demand as a preparation for 
the ordinary duties of life, have led to a different application of the term 
grammar scliools. The study of English grammar having taken the place 
of Latin grammar in schools of an elementary grade, such schools came to 
be designated grammar schools, and the former grammar or classical 
schools received the name of high schools or academies. In most of the 
public-school systems of the cities of the Union, grammar schools are 
schools of a grade between the primary schools in which the first rudiments 
of instruction are imparted, and the high schools. Some of the grammar 
schools, so called, have a primary, an intermediate, and a grammar depart- 
ment. In these cases, the term grammar schools has been used with no 
definite idea of its propriety, except as designating a somewhat higher 
grade of schools than those in which the simplest rudiments of an English 
education are afforded; since even in these English grammar is taught in 
only the higher grades or classes. 

GREEK LANGUAGE, one of the two classical languages which as 
such constitute an important part of the course of study in all the higher 
literary institutions of the civilized world. 

In regard to the method to be pursued in teaching Greek, there is a 
greater agreement among leading educators, than in respect to many other 
studies. It is generally admitted that the comparative difficulty 
teacli a ^^ Greek grammar, even of its first or etymological part, makes 
it desirable that all .whose education is to comprehend a knowl- 
edge of this language, should begin the study at an early age, when the 
vigor of memory is still fresh, and its function still prevails in the course 
of instruction. Hamilton's and Jacotot's methods find now-a-days few fol- 
lowers in the teaching of Greek; and the study of grammar, with trans- 
lations from Greek into English and English into Greek, chiefly occupies 
the attention of the beginner. It has been proposed, and sometimes at- 
tempted, to begin the teaching of the language, in accordance with the devel- 
opment of Greek literature, with the study of the epic and old Ionic dialects; 
but the old practice to make the Attic dialect the basis has victoriously 
maintained its traditional ascendency. Exercises in translating from the 
native language into Greek should not be omitted, as is frequently done; 
though it is well understood that, on account of the greater difficulties 
presented by the Greek, and the shorter time allowed for the study of it, 
the same proficiency in writing Greek is hardly ever or anywhere attained 
as in Latin. The first exercises in translating Greek into English, or any 
other native tongue, are now generally provided in the grammars. Where 
grammars are used which exclude exercises in translation, the use of a 
Greek reader is at once begun. In general, the use of a reader before the 



152 GYMNASIUM — GYMNASTICS 

taking np of a particular author, is continued longer iu Greek than in 
Latin, because of the longer time required to obtain a good knowledge of 
the grammatical rules in the former. When the pupil is far enough ad- 
vanced to take up the reading of Greek authors, the teacher, in 
reaiina ™^^"^g *^^^ selection, should not only be careful to proceed from 
the easier to the more difficult writers, and to prefer the classic 
authors, but also to read enough of the selected work to give to the stu- 
dents an adequate idea of the spirit of Greek literature. I'he orations, 
philosophical dialogues, and dramas are particularly suited for advanced 
classes in Greek. Of course, instruction in Greek is not considered complete 
without the reading of, at least, one of the Homeric poems; and it is for- 
tunate that the easy flow of the language of these poems fits them for an 
early stage of classic reading. Among the Greek historians, Xenophon and 
Herodotus fully deserve the favor of teachers andstudents, which they have 
enjoyed for centuries. In regard to Herodotus it is, however, desirable to 
wait until the pupils are well grounded in the Attic dialect. To include 
Thucydides in a regular course appears to many classical scholars objection- 
able, as the language is too difficult for the majority of college students, 
and as the gloomy period which he describes is not calculated to increase 
the students' interest in ancient Greece. Of the dramatic poets, -^^schylus 
and Aristophanes are not suited for schools; and, therefore, only Sophocles 
and Euripides can be recommended. 

GYMNASIUM (Or. ■)v/iivdaiov, a place for bodily exercises, from 
yvfivog, naked), a term applied, in ancient Greece and Rome, to schools 
for physical education, but in modern Germany and some other countries 
of continental Europe, to a class of secondary schools which hold a middle 
place between elementary schools and tlie universities. In Pjigland and 
the United States, in which the colleges correspond to the German gym- 
nasia, the term gymnasium is limited to places for physical exercises. 

GYMNASTICS (Gr. yvfivaariKy, from yv/uvSc, naked), a system of 
bodily exercises designed to develop muscular strength, and to promote 
general physical culture and health. In the article on Calisthenics, this 
subject has already been treated as far as it comprehends those light phys- 
ical exercises Avhich are especially adapted for females, although frequently 
used in the education of persons of the other sex; and. in the employment 
of the severer gymnastic training, there should be a careful discrimination 
having regard to the age and physical constitution of the pupil. Much 
injury may be done by requiring all the members of a school or cla?s to 
perform the same exercises, more especially such as are of a violent char- 
acter. Indeed, it may be doubted whether, up to the age of sixteen, for 
the ordinary purpose of physical development and health, boys need any- 
thing more than abundant opportunity and time for the out-door sports 
and recreations in which their natural activity will generally prompt them 
to engage. Beyond that age, gymnastic exercises, properly regulated, may 
be made the means of laying the foundation of permanent strength and 
health. Military drill is often introduced into schools and colleges, and is 
found an efficient substitute for gymnastic exercises, or an excellent auxil- 
iary to them. Educators uniformly approve of this kind of exercise in 
boys' schools, not only as an effective means of physical culture, but as im- 
parting habits of attention, order, subordination, and prompt obedience. 



HABIT 153 

For schools of most grades, and for either sex, light gymnastics has 
been found to supply appropriate and efficient exercise. See Cydopcedia 
of Education. 

HABIT, a tendency to repeat the same action, more or less uncon- 
sciously, or an inclination for the pursuits, occupations, or states to which 

the body or the mind has become familiar by use. Habit, as an 
ofhaJAt ^^tomatic tendency, takes a wide range, not only extending over 

all our mental and bodily acts, but including likewise our moods 
of mind, our sources of indulgence, pleasure, ease, and recreation, and com- 
prehending also, either by improvement or debasement, our entire moral 
and spiritual nature. The singular facility which is acquired by repeated 
action, in accomplishing what at first was either difficult or inipossible, has 
never been satisfactorily explained. The fact, however, is universally rec- 
ognized in the old saying, "Habit is second nature", as also in the useful 
educational maxim, "Practice makes perfect". "It conditions", says Rosen- 
kranz [Fedagogics as a Sysfem), '-formally all progress; for that which 
is not yet become habit, but which we perform with design and an exercise 
of our will, is not yet a part of ourselves." Physiologists profess to find a 
reason for this power of habit, in the sympathetic nerves; and some psychol- 
ogists trace mental habits to the association of ideas. The extent to which 
liabit influences the daily life of every one — even the youngest child, can 
scarcely be realized. Consciously or unconsciously, it enters, in some 
shape, into every effort at continuous action, physical or mental, and more 
or less controls it. From the dawn of intelligence, when the child first 
takes cognizance of material things, all through the period of self-education, 
which precedes systematic instruction, it is forming, of itself, habits of ob- 
servation, comparison, and generalization, which are to constitute the basis 
of all subsequent intellectual activity. So is it also forming those habits 
which, taken together, make up what is called disposition, temper, etc. It 
is this tendency to contract habits which gives such plasticity to the minds 
and characters of youth, and which really underlies the power and office of 
education; for what we call training is nothing more than guiding and reg- 
ulating the formation of habit. 

AV^hile it is the period of formal education at which the child especially 
needs to be protected from the influence of habit, to some extent and in 

some respects, the watchful care of the educator is required even 
^TaPtT'^^ from the earliest infancy to prevent the formation of injurious 

and almost ineradicable habits; indeed, there is scarcely a child 
who, on being sent to school for the first time, will not be found to have 
contracted habits, both physical and mental, which the teacher wiU find it 
necessary to strive to correct. One of his most important functions will be 
to detect and eradicate bad habits, as a kind of morbid growth; for, like 
weeds, these habits not only cumber the ground themselves, but render it 
sterile for any other productions. For example, what can be done with 
that most troublesome of all cases, — a "spoiled child", until the habits of 
self-indulgence, self-will, wayward caprice, and despotic control of others, 
which characterize it, are eradicated, or superseded by other dispositions ? 
So, too, with habits of deceit, falsehood, cruelty, and many others that are 
apt to spring up in even very young minds. In regard to the intellect, the 



i:,4 HABIT 

same principle holds true; for that natural development which precedes 
formal instruction may, indeed, be luxuriant, but cannot be regular. The 
mind of the most active child, under circumstances that present the very- 
best opportunities for development, if it has been left entirely to itself, will 
be found to have acquired settled ways of observing, thinking, and speak- 
ing which it will be necessary to correct; and, besides, it will generally have 
become impulsive, impatient of any continuous attention, and prone to 
pass rapidly from one thing to another, in obedience to a mere momentary 
fancy or impulse. It will, therefore, be generally found that children, on 
being first subjected to regular instruction, need to have habits of attention 
formed, in place of those of inattention, w^hicli have been implanted by 
their own unconscious and unregulated activity. (See Attention.) There 
are others, however, of a less general character which will demand special 
effort. As an instance, one of the earliest of these objectionable habits, 
and perhaps one of the most common, is the unconscious substitution in the 
child's mind of the symbol for the thing symbolized. This will be mani- 
fested by most children when shown, for example, the picture of a horse, 
and asked to state what it is. Usually the answer wiU be, "It is a horse", 
from the habit of confounding things with their representatives. Hence, 
the unresisting facility with which children yield their minds to mere 
memorizing and rote-learning, the effect of which is to confirm the bad 
habit referred to, and, in its final result, to extinguish intelligence and 
destroy mental activity. While some of the habits which demand the 
teacher's attention at this early stage, are common to all children, in a 
greater or a less degree, there are others of great variety, dependent upon 
either peculiar traits of character or peculiar circumstances of early life. 
The law of the formation of habit is repetition or exercise. This is recog- 
nized in many departments of instruction, as an indispensable 
Bepetition. .^q^lw^ of imparting facility, readiness, and promptitude, without 
which certain accomplishments could not be made, or if made, would be 
comparatively useless. For example, of what value would the multiplica- 
tion table be if its use required a conscious effort of mind at every appli- 
cation of any of its details ? The same principle is illustrated by the playing 
upon a musical instrument, by the use of language in speaking and writ- 
ing, and by the varied bodily movements needed in daily life. Good habits 
should be formed at as early a period as possible; because ex- 
Inl^'t perience shows that, when thoroughly established in childhood 
or youth, they generally continue, with more or less strength, 
through life. Hence the importance of making those qualities and observ- 
ances habitual which constitute the elements of practical success in every 
walk of life; such as punctuality, order, regularity, and perseverance; to 
which may be added neatness, courtesy, attention to the wants of others, 
. forbearance, and self-control. For the same reason, bad habits 
Correction. ^\^q^\^ i^q eradicated before they have reached that mature state, 
after which they scarcely ever entirely disappear. It is, indeed, rarely the 
case that thoroughly fixed habits are wholly removed; hence, the teacher 
should strive to counteract their evil influence, or neutralize their activity, 
by implanting those of a contrary nature. In dealing with the bad habits 
of children, the teacher should appreciate, and make due allowance for, the 
force of habit. He cannot uproot them at once and by violence. As time 



HALF-TIME SCHOOLS — HARMONY/ 155 

is an iDiportant element in their formation, so is it also in their eradication; 
and, therefore, the child Ls to be led along a divergent path which, by 
degrees, will conduct him away from the vicious impulse' which, all the 
while, tends to overpower his best resolutions. Whatever force or coercion 
may be found necessary for this purpose should be gradually relaxed, tiU 
the child has formed, to some extent, the habit of self-control; 
conlr'ol "^'^^^^^ "^^^^ become the foundation of most other good habits. 
The implanting of particular habits must not, however, be 
deemed the whole of moral training; there must be the culture of consci- 
entiousness, of intelligence, of self-respect, of a constant impression and rec- 
ognition of the Divine presence, and of all the other principles of human 
nature, by means of which it rises to the higher plane of moral responsi- 
bihty, consciously exercising its own faculties, not blindly obeying habitual 
tendencies received from others. Properly educated, the human being, in 
the exercise of his own will and conscience, enlists the power of habit ia 
support of his own moral conclusions, making a useful servant of that by 
which so many others are hopelessly enslaved. In this connection, Rosen- 
kranz says, "Education must procure for the pupil the power of being able 
to free himself from one habit and to adopt another. Through his free- 
dom, he must be able not only to renounce any habit formed, but to form 
a new one; and he must so govern his system of habits that it shall exhibit 
a constant progress of development into greater freedom. "We must disci- 
pline ourselves, as a means toward the everchanging realization of the good 
in us, constantly to form and to break habits." And it is in the attainment 
of this grand object of self-culture, that habit may render the important 
aid referred to, in making the exercise of seK-criticism, conscientious 
watchfulness of our own conduct, and obedience to the dictates of reason 
and religion, easy and continuous by becoming habitual. Thus it is that 
the man for whom education has done all that it can do, within the utmost 
scope of its power, truly finds habit not his master but his most useful 
servant and friend. 

HALF-TIME SCHOOLS, a class of schools which, as the name 
denotes, hold their sessions during only one half of each day, thus affording 
an opportunity to a numerous class of children, employed in workshops, 
factories, stores, etc., to attend school without giving up their employments. 
They are thus kindred in object with evening schools, which in a certain 
sense, may be considered as half-time schools. 

HARMONY in Development, as regards both the mental and 

bodily faculties, is now viewed by educationists as the most important aim 

of education. " One part of instruction", says Dittes [Scliule 

AU the de7^ PddagogiJc, 1816), "must not contradict another; nothing 

bTtrafned.^^^^'^^'^ be neglected, nothing exaggerated; all the faculties of 

' the pupil should be cultivated as much as possible, and all the 

different objects and departments of education should receive attention, 

without interruption, and in due proportion. The intellect should not be 

favored at the expense of the moral and physical nature; and hygienic 

considerations should not be left out of view. The teacher should be 

especially careful not to accord too much time and attention to favorite 

branches of study." The latter is a very important admonition. Every 

course of study should be arranged with a view to the average condition of 



156 ^^^ HARMONY 

the growing mind and its needs; and, therefore, should comprise such a 
variety of subjects as will call into exercise the different mental powers, 
and thus become instruments in their culture and development. The 
scientific teacher will, however, watch for decided peculiarities 
^f't'^^s ^^ character, — special aptitudes, traits of genius, etc., and will 
' modify his course of proceeding so as, while giving scope for the 
unfolding of these particular powers, or talents, not to permit them to 
repress the growth of other indispensable faculties. Thus, a pupil may 
show a special inclination and talent for drawing, which may very 
properly be allowed its full development; but, in doing this, the educator 
is not to permit all other mental or manual occupations to be neglected. 
Indeed, this special gift may be kept in abeyance, and stimulus applied, for 
a time at least, to penmanship, and to the study of language, science, or 
other important subjects. Some pupils, as a further example, may be too 
prone to the exercise of the imagination; in which case, they should be 
required to study science or mathematics. Others may show an almost 
exclusive bent for calculation or mathematical reasoning, which must, of 
course, be corrected by the pursuit of studies calling into exercise other 
powers of the mind; such as history, general literature, mental philosophy, 
etc. Knowledge is sometimes called the food of the mind, by the assimila- 
tion of which its various powers are nourished: hence, to continue the 
metaphor, there should be a due variety of this food, and the different 
kinds should be selected with a view to the particular condition and needs 
of the system which is to be supplied with nutriment. As in physical 
education, if a pupil manifests any signs of abnormal development or 
morbid growth, such, for example, as distortion of the limbs or curvature 
of the spine, continuous exercises and postures are prescribed to correct 
this tendency; so, in every department of education, a harmonious 
development can only result from a discriminative application of those 
agencies which call into active and habitual exercise the powers of 
mind and body. Such a development implies, too, a full recognition 
of all the relations and powers of the human being, embracing not only 
the cultivation of those capacities which concern him as an individual, but 
also those on which his happiness and usefulness as a social and moral 
being depend. How miserable is the mere student, the solitary genius, 
cut off from the exercise of the social sympathies and deprived of social 
enjoyments by a one-sided development ! 1 he educator must recognize 
that there is a body, a mind, and a soul to be addressed and cultivated; 
and that man has social, moral, and religious faculties, without the 
harmonious development of which he cannot properly fulfil his destiny, 
nor attain happiness. The special claims of particular vocations, it is said, 
demand one-sided culture. Of this there is no doubt; but 
vocaU^is preceding it, and hence underlying it, there should be such 
" general culture as the circumstances of man, as man, require. 
Profession or business comprehends, in general, but one relation; and un- 
fortunate, therefore, is he who can meet the demands of only that relation, 
unable to perform aright the domestic, social, political, and religious duties 
which are inseparably connected with the position of every person in this 
life. In order to perform these duties, every person is endowed with 
special faculties, which, bj the want of proper cultivation in early life, or 



HAZING — HIGH SCHOOLS 157 

by disuse, may be so enfeebled as to be unfit for exercise; and the 
harmonious development of these is tlie only true aim of education. If all 
these faculties do not, at an early age, receive their due share of training, 
self-education, at a later period, cannot, but within very narrow limits, 
supply the deficiency. I'he individual will always find himself more or 
less crippled, because no self-culture can entirely supply the place of early 
habits. To the doctrine of harmonious development, it has 
dovnnents ^'^^^ objected that special innate endowments cannot be re- 
pressed by education; and to address other faculties will only 
result in bestowing superficial accomplishments of no practical value. 
Thus a youth of decided mathematical genius could never become more 
than an imperfect linguist; and one with special talent for language would 
be likely to make but indifferent attainments in science. Harmonious 
development, however, does not require the repression of special endowments, 
but the cultivation of what may be called the general powers, in such a 
way as to give support to each particular endowment. A wise educational 
training, commenced at the earliest childhood, and continued through each 
successive period of the formative state of human character, will not only 
fit for any particular vocation for which there may be a special bent, but 
will also prepare the individual for general usefulness, and render him able 
to enjoy the wonders of science, and the beauties of nature and art, as weU 
as to participate in all other pleasures incident to his existence as a social 
and rational being. 

HAZING, a term applied to the mischievous and often abusive and 
injurious tricks which are played by older college students upon freshmen. 
The term, as well as the practice, is of considerable age; but, during the 
last few years, much effort has been put forth by those who have the charge 
of higher institutions of learning to suppress the custom as demoralizing 
and barbarous. 

HEBREW LANGUAGE, the language in which the Sacred Script- 
ures of the Old Testament were written, is on that account of special im- 
portance both for the Hebrew people and for Christians, more especially 
theologians, who desire to read the Scriptures in the original. 

As the study of Hebrew, among Christians, generally is not begun 
until the students have obtained a good knowledge, not only of their native 
tongue, but also of Latin and Greek, the teacher will find it expedient to 
pursue a method very different from that observed in teaching young 
pupils the elements of Latin and Greek. The mastering of the chief rules 
of grammar may be expected to consume comparatively little time. As 
the chief purpose of nearly all students of Hebrew is to be enabled to read 
the Bible, it is natural that teachers should generally conform their method 
to that special aim. The study of the Hebrew Bible is, therefore, begun 
as soon as possible, and most of the grammatical peculiarities are explained 
in connection with reading. For a full treatment of this subject, see 
Cydopcedi'i of Educrttion. 

HIGH SCHOOLS, generally schools of secondary or academic in- 
struction, corresponding, to the lower grades of the German gymnasia, but 
sometimes partaking rather of the character of real schools. Public high 
schools exist in most of the states of the Union, forming a part of the 
public-school system, being the connecting link between the elementary 



158 HISTOEY 

district, common, or grammar scliools, and the state university, for which 
they perform the office of preparatory schools. Some of these schools are 
so organized as to comprise academic, normal, and commercial departments. 
In small cities and towns, high- school classes or departments, taught in the 
same building with the grammar schools, take the place of separate high 
schools. There is a great want of uniformity in the grade and character 
of these schools in different states and in different cities of the same state. 
Some are simply of a higher grade than the grammar schools; that is, they 
give instruction in more advanced studies; while others strictly form a 
part of a graded system which includes a complete representation of 
primary, secondarj'', and superior instruction. 

HISTORY, as a branch of instruction, presents very many important 
points of inquiry for the educator. The vast field which it occupies as a 

realm of facts, the great difficulty in classifying these facts, and 

Edu- deducing from them any general principles or laws, or even in 

charade)^ associating them so that they may be presented to the mind of 

the learner in groups bound together by some common relation, 
— these characteristics of history make it perhaps the most difficult which 
the educator has to deal with. This will account for the diversity of opin- 
ion as to the proper method of teaching it. as well as for the many obvious 
errors of method that exist. Some, indeed, have condemned it as a school 
study; on the ground that the mere facts of history, without the general 
laws which they teach, are of no account, while the study of the philosophy 
of history is too deep for immature minds. On this account. Prof. Bain 
contends that it is a subject proper only for the university. John Locke 
said, " As nothing teaches, so nothing delights, more than history. The 
first of these recommends it to the study of the grown man; the latter 
makes me think it fittest for a young lad". These extreme opinions arise 
from viewing the subject from different stand-points. There is no doubt 
that the study of history, like that of geography, botany, astronomy, and 

other school subjects may be presented to the mind of the child 
ieacf ^^ ^"^^ ^ manner as not only to be useless and distasteful, but 
history, actually injurious. As in every other subject, the educator is 

to consider the nature of the mind to be addressed, and the 
character of the study itself. Primarily, history is a narrative; and there 
is nothing which pleases children so much as narratives concerning things 
in which they take an interest, or with which they are familiar. If cliildren, 
therefore, are to study history, they must first be interested in the persons 
and things that it refers to. Thus American children will be eager to 
learn about the discovery of America by Columbus, because it concerns 
the country in which they live; and they will be scarcely satisfied with 
any amount of detail in regard to the particular facts connected with that 
event. Columbus as a great personage will then loom up in their 
imagination, and their curiosity will Idc exerted to know something 
about him. ^ This will interest them in Isabella, the good queen of Spain; 
and something may be said of her, and of the country to which she be- 
longed. In this desultory way, and without any special effort to show the 
relations of events as to time or cause and effect, the conceptive faculty of 
quite young children may be addressed in teaching history, and thus their 
minds will be prepared for its regular study, by receiving those underlying 



TTTSTORY i:)9 

conceptions wliich are constantly needed to make formal historical narra- 
tives interesting or even understood. "The fact", says Emerson, "must 
correspond to something in me to be credible or intelligible". It is in ref- 
erence to this principle that Wickersham remarks, "It concerns us little 
to know the lineage of kings and queens, the intrigues of courts, or the 
plans of campaigns; but it would interest us much to be told how people 
in past times built their houses, worked their fields, or educated their 
children — what style of dress they wore, what kind of food they eat, what 
books they read". The latter classes of facts are not, however, more in- 
teresting in themselves, but because they are more nearly related to our 
individual experience. Different persons will not be interested in the same 
class of historical facts. The soldier will attend to the military history of 
a country; the statesman and politician, to the political; the agriculturist, 
to the methods of husbandry in use; and to a numerous class of minds the 
dynastic history — the "lineage of kings and queens", will possess supreme 
fascination. AU departments of history are useful in their special appli- 
cations; and are of interest to those who desire to know the facts which 

they severally comprehend. In arranging history for educational 

Stages of purposes, we must consider the degree of development of the 

iudv pupil's mind; and in this respect historical study may be divided 

into three stages: (1) The iniroduciory, in which the mind of 
the young child has to be prepared for the study, as above indicated; 
(2) I'he intermediate, at which the formal study of history commences, 
dealing principally with facts and their obvious relations; and (3) The ad- 
vancedj in which the higher forms of generalization are presented, consti- 

tuting what has been styled the philosophy of history. In the 
stae ^^^* stage, what has been called the "fragments of history", that 

is, brief and interesting narratives, biographical sketches, etc., 
clothed in a simple picturesque style, should constitute the subject matter 
of the instruction. This may be presented in a desultory manner, without 
any special regard to logical or chronological order, the great object being 
to interest the learner by filling his mind with vivid conceptions of certain 
events and personages. Of course, this preliminary instruction may take a 
wide range, embracing the most prominent persons and events in the 
history of the world, and thus constituting a valuable outline, on which to 
base the subsequent study. But this is not so important as that, in every 
thing that is taught, the young pupil's experience and imagination should 
be addressed; that is, the facts presented to be learned should be concrete 
facts, not mere abstractions. Epitomes of history are valueless for this 
purpose, because they attempt to cover the whole ground. As has been 
well said by a celebrated educationist, the use of an epitome is like giving 
a child an "index to learn by heart". 

In the second stage, while the same principle should be steadily kept in 
view, the study should become more formal and systematic. It is here that 

the most important questions arise for consideration. The first 
' staqe ^^ these concerns the choice between a compendium of history 

and a series of historical text-books on different nations. The 
system of special national text-books grew up at a time when, from na- 
tional patriotism, each country considered its own history as foremost and 
hence, all others as of secondary importance; and it has been fostered, in 



160 HISTORY 



1 



the advance of historic learning, by a system of abridgments of large 
standard works, or by school books based, in method of treatment, upon 
them. But such treatment is not adapted to conditions for which the orig- 
inals were not intended. Each of these special works presupposes the 
existence of all the others, and thus virtually depends on them for its 
general stand-point, and for that knowledge which is indispensable to 
render the narrative intelligible; and, hence, for school purposes, the 
abridgments are of little use, because this general knowledge cannot be 
supposed to exist. Besides that, the large standard works are too exclu- 
sively philosophical in their character and arrangement to admit of an 
abridgment for school purposes. Narrowing the field of view for the pur- 
pose of scientific investigation, such works naturally adopt largely the con- 
secutive narrative form; but consecutive narrative is not essential when 
only general leading facts are to be presented, and narrative detail is un- 
suited to the treatment required for school instruction. There can be 
no perspective in such a mode of treatment. Leading facts rank side by 
side with subordinate ones, and the history assumes the form of dry 
annals. Excessive detail in historical text-books is always a fruitful 
source of vexation to both teacher and pupil. What is needed, for this 
stage of instruction, is a skillful grouping of facts, which, while it departs 
but little from the chronological order, shows the proper relation of 
events — how one brought about the other. In the history of the 
world, as of each separate country, and of every great event, as, for 
example, the Eeformation, the Thirty Years' War, the Revolution in 
England, the American Revolution, the French Revolution, the great 
Civil War in the United States, there are certain conspicuous stand- 
points, or centers of interest, around which other events should be 
grouped, as dependent upon them. The same principle is opposed, in the 
teaching of general history, to confining the attention of the pupil 
exclusively to each nation in succession, throughout its entire history 
(ethnograpldc iiuthod). It is a well-defined feature of every historic 
movement that, in many of its epochs, it is carried along by some particular 
nation as the representative, for the time being, of some controll- 
Ethnograph- jng idea or principle, other nations playing a subordinate part. 
qrouphin "^^^^ should be clearly brought out in the arrangement of the 
methods, subject (grovping method). It is not always possible, however, 
to distinguish a single nation as holding such an undisputed 
prominence; but, where this question is in doubt, there is always a move- 
ment, more or less general, to which the contemporaneous nations are sub- 
ject, and to which, therefore, the history of the separate nations should 
have a distinct reference. In the period of the Reformation, for example, 
it is desirable to present the nations collectively in their relation to it, the 
events which concern their separate existence being kept in the background. 
A system of instruction which presents, in succession and at widely sep- 
arated intervals, the share of each particular nation in such a great move- 
ment as the Reformation, cannot possibly impress the mind of the pupil 
properly in regard to it. In the compilation of a compendium of history 
suitable for school use, a compromise is requisite between the plan of teach- 
ing the history of each nation by itself (ethnographic method) and that of 
teaching by periods or epochs, the history of each nation coming in where 



HISTOKY 161 

it belongs in the period {synchronistic method). The latter nciethod, by 
short periods, centuries for instance, is useless for beginners, as it gives 
only a confused picture of the whole. In ancient history, it has 
Synchro- but a limited application; because the nations of antiquity 
' method "^^^^ essentially separate, coming on the stage at successive pe- 
riods, and rarely blended, to any extent, in any general move- 
ment. The ethnographic method is, therefore, the best for this depart- 
ment of history, but may be departed from in certain portions of it, as, for 
example, in the history of the states of Greece. For beginners, the eth- 
nographic method seems to be best, at least until a good general outline has 
been fixed in the mind, after which the grouping method ought to be 
steadily pursued, but still with a constant regard to the mental advance- 
ment and maturity of the student. The chronological method 
m^hod^^ ^^^^' however, lead in every scheme of elementary historical 
teaching. The pupil must, above all things, attend to the order 
of time; or his subsequent reading and study will be greatly embarrassed. 
This method has been used in Germany from time immemorial, with modifi- 
cations such as have been referred to, for adaption to the purposes of element- 
ary, burgher and real schools, and gymnasia. These modifications consist 
chiefly in the relative prominence given to the synchronistic and ethno- 
graphic principles. Many of the school text-books on history, published in 
Great Britain and the United States, are based on the same system; but 
teachers have generally favored the ethnographic system, as less fragmentary 
and disjointed. For a field so vast as that of general history, it is of the 
highest importance that the idea of both unity and sequence should be im- 
pressed upon the pupil's mind. In the chronologic method, the perspective 
view which this unification of the broader parts demands, is not dependent 
on the special notions of any teacher or compiler, but grows up in the 
mind from the study of the facts themselves. In the treatment of antiquity, 
the history of the eastern nations precedes that of the Greeks, and the 
Greeks the Romans; and while teaching each in chronologic order, the 
other contemporaneous nations should be brought in, as episodes, at such 
periods and in such connections, as will best illustrate the history of the 
great nation which, for the time being, is controlling the affairs of the 
world. Egypt, Assyria, Babylon, Persia, Greece, Rome (republic and 
empire), may, in succession, be made the leading nation; and all the others 
will come in at certain periods. In the middle ages, the treatment should 
be analogous; there is at every period, a great tribe or nation, whether the 
Franks, the Saracens, the Normans, or the Germans, the history of whom, 
treated in its chronologic order, will absorb the remainder, except what 
may come in episodically. In modern history, the ethnographic principle 
must at first have prominence, before the pupil can study the great 
European movements, such as the Reformation and the Thirty Years' 
War, with any real satisfaction or benefit. Chiefly as episodes, in mediaeval 
and modern history, come in certain great topics; such as the Saracenic 
civilization, the Byzantine culture, the Turkish ascendency, the maritime 
discoveries of Portugal and Spain, the Italian Renaissance, the struggle of 
gyj^, the Dutch Republic, the rise of Sweden and Russia, etc. What' 
chronistic ever method may be used, synchronistic exej'cises will be 
exercises, constantly requisite to a full understanding of the relations of 



162 HISTORY 

events. These may take the form of lists of sovereigns grouped into 
centuries and arranged, side by side, in perpendicular columns; or lead- 
ing events arranged in the same way. After the history of any nation 
or period has been studied in the chronological order, various methods of ar- 
rangement may be adopted for the purpose of review, varying the sequence 
which has been followed in the regular lessons. Thus, the pupil may be 
required to state all the events connected with a particular place, or a 
particular individual, which he has previously learned in a strictly chrono- 
logical order, or in connection with the national history. The topical 

method of recitation will be found the most effective, not only 
'M^th^d ^^^ *^^ attainment of the best results as far as history itself is 

concerned, but for collateral culture, particular^ of expression. 
On account of the latter, accuracy in language should, as much as possible 
be insisted upon; and the pupils should be required to use their own 
language, instead of memorizing that of the text-book. Brief written 
sketches of events, personages, periods, etc., will be of great use in making 
this collateral culture effective, and will also afford much useful practice in 

other respects. — A severe and sustained drill on a single manual 
anual ^® ^^ great use for the strong landmarks it leaves in the pupil's 

mind; but, to be thoroughly effective as an educational process, 
it ought to be accompanied with the reading, to some extent, of auxiliary 
books giving interesting detail in regard to prominent points. Such a 
system of independent reading by the different members of a class, properly 
utilized, will lead to the acquisition of much interesting information, each 
pupil bringing his own contribution, to be offered in connection with the 
class exercises. Children, at an early age, with a taste for reading, will 
devour solid books of history, when not under compulsion; especially if 
they have a strong frame-work fixed in their minds for the separate facts 
to attach themselves to; and such reading will constitute a very important 
part of mental culture. — Dates are to some extent needed, but only in 
connection with the general narrative. To memorize the dates of isolated 

events is worse than useless. The dates of certain great events, 
Bates, u^arking epochs, should be carefully fixed in the mind. As al- 
ready said, the method pursued should be such as to keep the stream of 
time constantly in view; and this will render the memorizing of many 
dates unnecessary. Chronological relations may be better taught by means 
of historical charts, representing the exact position in time of every nation 
and event, just as a map represents countries, cities, etc., in space. These 
should be large enough to show clearly to the eye what is represented: and 

the different nations should be marked out in strong colors. ISIaps, 
Geography, gj^owing the states and countries, and their extent at different 
periods, are indispensable. These maps illustrate the relation of geography 
and history, and afford an indication of the extent to which geographical 
study is needed in connection with that of history. It is, however, desir- 
able that all the places mentioned in history should be at least pointed 
out on the map. 

Good historical lectures are eminently beneficial, in connection with 
regular lessons, or re-inforced by suitable class exercises. The taking of 

notes by the pupils is of little value; because such notes can 
Lectures, concern only definite and disconnected facts which should be 



HISTORY 163 

impressed upon the mind by the study of a compendium or by class drill; 
while the lecture is designed to give broad, general views of events, in 
their relations, and in their bearing on some great historical movement. 
The takin^T of notes by young pupils must necessarily interrupt the current 
of their tlK)ught, and thus mar the effect of the lecture. It is, however, in 
the third or° advanced stage of historical study that lectures have their 
special place. 

The class of facts — the kind of material — to be selected for the 
elementary study of history is another important consideration for the 

teacher, as well as for the compiler of a school compendium. 
Class There is a great diversity in this respect. In some text-books, 
0/ Jacts. ^^^^^ prominence is given to the political and military history, 
every thing partaining to social life being left out. This deprives the study 
of much of its strongest and best interest. The condition and progress of 
the people in the elements of civilization, — the industrial and fine arts, 
literature, education, social culture, manners, customs, etc., should be 
graphically sketched, in connection with the political history, which must, 

of course, constitute the frame-work of the whole. The office 
FacuUies ^f history as a school study, is not only to give information in 
aaaressea. ^^^^^^ ^^ ^^^ events of the past, but is to discipline the mind 
by cultivating and improving (1) the memory, (2) the imagination, (3) the 
judgment. (4) the power of expression, and (5) the moral and emotional 
nature. The pupil, when properly instructed, has his sympathies aroused: 
he applauds the noble, the patriotic, and the virtuous; he condemns the 
meaa, the selfish, and the wicked. Every lesson teaches him by example, 
for it confronts him with either human virtue or human wickedness. The 
false tinsel of glory must not be permitted to conceal the selfishness, cruelty, 
and wrong of the ambitious tyrant or conqueror; and the nobleness of the 
martyr will not be debased because ho pines in a dungeon or dies on the 
scaffold. Treated in the right spirit, history thus becomes a great moral 
teacher for pupils of every class and grade. 

In the tJw^d stage, that of superior instruction, history has strong claims 
to attention. Whatever the sphere of life in which the student is to engage, 

he should possess himself of the key to the records of the past 
t;"_g history of mankind. History may peculiarly be called a "living 
^ ■ study", since it draws its interest at once from the slow but 
certain movement of human forces, among w^hich self-interest, will, and 
passion play a great part. The field is so vast, that the untrained student 
will be lost in the maze, and will wander about aimless and bewildered. 
It is the office of education to show that the elements are really simple, 
and to impart a system to the vast crowd of facts, by which they may 
become useful, by being co-ordinated. It is here, then, that history assumes 
whatever scientific phase it may be capable of. What has been called the 

pliilosophy of history is, in an especial manner and degree, 
■^Jf^-''?^^^^ suitable for college study, as it brings into play the higher 
0/ iiisio^y. f^^^j^.gg Qf ^^^ ^^^^^ —generalization, reason, and judgment. 

At this stage, we do not rest satisfied with a simple narrative of events, 
but we attempt to trace them to their real causes, and deduce from them 
those general laws on which political and social science must be based. 
This gives rise to various theories; as the materialistic theory, which sup- 



164 HOME EDUCATION 

poses the co-ordinate factor in bringing about the changes in history to be 
the forces of material nature, acting on human character and human will; 
the spiritualistic theory which attributes to the soul of man a certain 
freedom of purpose and will, acting independently of its material sur- 
roundings; and the theistic theory, which attributes great movements and 
changes in the world's history to the special interposition of an overruling 
Providence, a Divine will, and thus makes " God in history" the supreme 
source of all the great events that have marked the intellectual, social, and 
moral progress of mankind. 'J'hese theories may, however, be called the 
metaphysics of history; they are not essential to the investigation of the 
laws which constitute its philosophy; inasmuch as the generalizations upon 
which these laws are based, are chiefly independent of them, the course 
of human events, like the course of nature, being controlled only by 
general laws. 

What has already been suggested has exclusive reference to facts, or 
statements of facts, accepted as such; but there is another department of 
history which concerns the sources of history, their nature and 
history credibility; and this has an indisputable claim upon the atten- 
tion of those who teach, and those who study history in its ad- 
vanced stages. Two objects will be subserved by this: (1) The mind will 
acquire the useful habit of withholding its assent from all statements that 
are not supported by sufhcient testimony; and (2) The judgment and 
critical faculty will receive a practical culture which must prove of great 
service in the further prosecution of study, and in the affairs of daily life. 
In the prosecution of this historical criticism, the student is invariably to 
consider (1) the writer or writers from whom the narration proceeds, 
(2) their means of information, (3) their character for sagacity and dis- 
cernment, (4) their interests, associations, and affections. All these in- 
evitably color the narrative, and hence constitute an important element to 
be considered in the kind and degree of credibility to which it is entitled. 
— In the struggle, for some time in progress, between the friends of classic- 
al and of scientific studies, history as a branch of education holds a strong 
and prominent position. While it is a record of the past, it is, in fact, the 
science of the future; and one only has to imagine the condition of the 
world, were all its annals destroyed, to appreciate the practical 
history value of this science. The studies pertaining to matter and 
force claim supreme consideration with many; and those per- 
taining to the mere linguistic expression of thought, often obsolete and 
valueless, with many others; but history deals with the facts of human in- 
telligence and will, illustrates the principles which control the progress of 
mankind in all the elements of civilization, and hence assumes an office and 
agency in connection with human education, without which it must be 
measurably ineffective and imperfect. — For a full list of references see 
CydopcpcHa of Edttcatioyi. 

HOME EDUCATION is that which is carried on in the home 
circle, or family, as contrasted with that which is afforded by the school. 
Up to a certain age, and within a certain sphere, home education, 
•^^^' or its equivalent, is not only indispensable but inevitable. The 
parents are the first teachers, especially the mother; and the educative in- 
fluences of the nursery npt only precede in time, but exceed in power, 



aOMK EDUCATION 165 

those of the school. Here the foundation is laid on which the school- 
teacher must subsequently build; and, comparatively speaking, more is ac- 
complished in the period of earliest childhood, both in storing the mind 
and in forming the disposition and character, than during any equal 
number of subsequent years. "A child gains more ideas", says 
tuilionT^ I^rd Brougham, "in the first four years of his life than ever 
afterward". Early home education consists peculiarly in what 
has been called unconscious tuition, by means of which the plastic nature 
of the young child is insensibly moulded by the agencies which environ it. 
The mother chiefly controls these agencies, which may be enumerated as 
follows: (1) The affectionate tenderness which she displays, in ministering 

to the wants and gratifying the desires of the child, and in sym- 
educal?on P^^hizing with and alleviating its distresses; (2) Her behavior, 

as being delicate and refined, or coarse and rude, — showing 
self-restraint and dignity, or manifesting impulsiveness and passion; (3) The 
tones of her voice — sweet and tender, or harsh and dissonant, firm and 
decisive, or weak and yielding; (4) The expression of her face, implying 
similar traits; (5) The force of her will, under the intelligent guidance of 
educational principles and the restraints of conscience. Such are the ele- 
ments of a mother's educative power, — a power the exercise of which 
results in forming in the child traits of character that no succeeding agency 
of circumstance, education, or self-discipline can entirely efface. It will be 
seen, from this enumeration, that the mother's influence is rather moral 
than intellectual; indeed, the special period of its exercise supersedes the 
necessity of any formal cultivation of the knowing faculties. The child, 

during the first few years of its existence needs little direction 

Education jn this respect. Natural curiosity and innate activity constantly 

i^eUect stimulate the growth of the mind, and fill it with those ideas 

which are to constitute, in succeeding years, the materials of 
thought. It is just as absurd to subject a very young child to formal in- 
struction as it would be to attempt the development of its physical powers 
by gymnastic exercises. Watchfulness is, however, constantly required to 
check the formation of bad habits, which have just as strong a tendency to 
spring up in the young mind as rank weeds in a virgin soil. (See Habit.) 
The period of exclusive home education here referred to being so decisive 
of the future character of the child, and the mother being the first and 
most effective of all educators, it will be apparent that the science of edu- 
cation, in its most comprehensive sense, should constitute an 
Education essential part of the curriculum of every female seminary or 
mother, college. Particularly should the future mother be taught to 

appreciate the character of the influence, in all its phases, which 
she is to exert; as well as to understand how to render it effectual in con- 
tributing to the future welfare of her child. The father, at a somewhat 
later period, but in a similar manner, is a powerful educator within the 
circle of home. Both by precept and example, but especially by the latter, 
he makes life- long impressions. In vain are precepts, however, if they are 

not fully supported by example. The impressions, both intel- 

Moral lectual and moral, received by children in very many of the 

^ofhome ^^^® circles of what are considered the better classes of so- 

_ _ * ciety, are rather debasing than elevating. The complaint is 



166 HOME EDUCATION 

often made by teachers that the children placed under their care are so 
depraved by bad home training, or in consequence of absolute neglect, that 
their efforts to discipline and instruct these pupils are almost useless. This 
is the more to be regretted, as school education can, in most cases, only sup- 
plement that of home; and because the influences that center in the latter 
are always more potent than those wielded by the former, chiefly because 
school education is primarily intellectual; whereas that of home is primarily 
moral. At any rate such is the fact generally. 

After the period of formal instruction has arrived, the question arises 
in the minds of many parents, whether it is better to detain the child at 
home to be instructed by private tutors or to submit it to the discipline 
and instruction of the school. This question has been much discussed by 

educators. The following arguments are generally adduced to 

Adoantages-pYQYQ that the education acquired in school is to be preferred to 

g^hzfj any that, is possible by private tutors at home: (1) The intellectual 

training is more effective; since the boy or girl coming in com- 
petition with those of the same age is stimulated to greater exertions than 
would be possible in any system of home instruction. As Quintilian says: 
"At home, the boy can learn only what is taught himself; at school, he will 
also learn what is taught to others. He will hear many things approved; 
many others, corrected. The reproof of a fellow pupil's idleness will be a 
good lesson to him; as will, likewise, the praise of his neighbor's industry. 
He will think it disgraceful to yield to his equals in age, and great honor 
to excel his seniors. All these matters arouse the powers of the mind; and 
if ambition be an evil, it is often the parent of virtue". The child edu- 
cated at home can never realize the full extent of his own powers, having 
no standard by which to measure them. Hence, he is satisfied with meager 
results, at the same time that he is hkely to be filled with self-conceit. It 
is, however, scarcely disputed that the school, as a mimic world, presents 
a variety of incentives which a home education could never afford; and that 
it is favorable to rapid mental growth. But it is its influence on the moral 
nature that has been chiefly called in question. Home has been depicted 
as the abode of purity and innocence, — of kindness, gentleness, and affec- 
tion, — of courtesy and refinement, — of morality and religious influence; 
and such it ought to be, and it is to be hoped, often is. From such an 
atmosphere, the home-bred child is at once introduced into a new, and to 
him utterly unknown, world. Instead of sympathy, he finds, among his 
school-mates, indifference; instead of courtesy and kindness, a thoughtless 
disregard of aU weakness, either of mind or body, except, indeed, to turn 
it into ridicule. He finds that, if he is not mindful of himself, and 
sufficiently self-assertive, he will be borne down in the mass. There is an 
antagonism — an aggressiveness in those around him that begets caution 
and resistance; there is a sense of danger that cultivates courage, and a 
matter-of-fact spirit that crushes out egotism and sensitiveness. Thus the 
boy, in the little world of the school, is prepared for the greater school 
beyond. Better, therefore, it would appear, is it to unite the education of 
a good school with that of a properly ordered family, in which combination 
the evils of school life will be neutralized by the stronger and purer in- 
fluences of home. Not home or school, but home mid school, constitutes 
the proper agency for the education of children, whether boys or girls. It 



HOME LESSONS . 167 

IS the opinion of some, however, that admitting the advantages, in general, 
of a school education, that of home generates certain peculiar traits and 
excellencies of character which are essential to the welfare of society. 

HOME LESSON'S, or Home Studies. The question whether home 
lessons, or home studies, should be a part of the system of instruction in 
. schools of different grades, and if so, to what extent they should 
''PPpe;^/ i^Q permitted, and in what manner they should be pursued and su- 
pervised by the teacher, is one of considerable importance, which 
is still extensively discussed by winters on education. The need of home 
lessons for pupils of secondary and higher schools has never been disputed. 
In regard to the schools of a lower grade, many physicians have strongly 
objected to any kind of home lessons, as long as the children are required 
to spend from 4 to 5 hours a day in the school room. Their arguments 
are, however, chiefly directed against the length of the school sessions. 
From an educational point of view, it has justly been urged by recent 
writers, that the regulation of this matter must chiefly depend on the 
r)} ■ f question, for what purpose should home lessons be given. On 
Ooject of ^Y-iiQ point, educators, at the present time, are much more nearly 
agreed than formerly. No writer of note will, nowadays, maintain that 
home lessons should be for the mere purpose of preventing idleness — of 
keeping the children busy, or as a punishment for delinquencies; but it is 
agreed that all home studies should aim at training the pupils to self- 
exertion, at giving them the ability to depend upon their own efforts as 
students, and by degrees, to dispense with the aid of a teacher. If this 
principle is accepted, several corollaries are self-evident. Home lessons 
. . should not begin at too early an age. Young children need the 
Directions, g^per^rigion of a teacher to a much greater extent than those of 
a more advanced age, and are much less fitted to spend their time 
profitably without direct guidance. Moreover, while the school sessions 
for young children are as long as for older ones, the medical warning not 
to overwork the brain, applies with much greater force to the home lessons 
of the former than to those of the latter. Special care should be taken 
that all the children fully understand the work which they are required to 
perform at home, and that they are competent to do it. No child of good 
standing in the class should feel it necessary to apply to ^ his parents or 
adult friends for help. It is especially this point that is so apt to be 
disregarded by teachers. Parents have a right to object to any home lesson 
or exercise which requires, in the case of diligent pupils, any help in 
addition to that of the teacher. All exercises of this kind prove 
^'^^^aid^^^^ torment, and are absolutely injurious. *'The _schoor',_ says 
Diesterweg, *' must teach the method of home studies. It is not 
enough that the home lesson be appropriate in itself; the pupil must be 
enabled to prepare it in a proper manner. How often poor children tor- 
ment themselves where this is not taught ! The teacher should show them 
how to memorize, how to prepare or review a lesson, how to write a compo- 
sition, by previously memorizing, preparing, reviewing, etc., with them at 
school. Thus the teacher becomes the pupil's friend, and this is more than 
to be his master ". Moreover, when pupils are required to write 
Exercises, exercises at home, the teacher should faithfully correct them. 
The failure to do this fosters habits of carelessness. Many teachers greatly 



168 HOEK-BOOK: — HTGIEXE 

err in this regard, burdening children with the task of writing pages of 
exercises, and correcting but few, or none, of them. Certainly, no teacher 
who is guilty of so serious a mistake, can be regarded as understanding the 
work either of instruction or of discipline. 

HORN-BOOK, a book consisting of a single page, formerly used to 
teach children the alphabet and other simple rudiments. It was, in fact, 
the first page of the primer, pasted on a thin board, which terminated in a 
handle, and having, fastened over the printed matter, a thin plate of trans- 
parent horn, to protect it from being soiled or torn by the young learner. 
iSee Cydopoedia of Education. 

HUMANITIES (Lat. humaniora or liter ce humaniores), those 
branches of education or study, which are included in what is called polite 
or elegant learning, as languages, grammar, rhetoric, philology, and poetry, 
with all that pertains to what is called polite literature, including the 
ancient classics. The name implies that the study of these branches, in 
opposition to the physical sciences, which especially develop the intellectual 
faculties, has a tendency to humanize man, — to cultivate particularly 
those faculties which distinguish him as man, in all his relations, social 
and moral; that is, which make him a truly cultured man. 

HYGIENE, School, has reference to that department of school 
administration, which pertains to the preservation of physical health. This 
is to be distinguished from physical education, which looks 
Object of pother to the special training or developing of the body; while 
hygienic principles and rules have for their object to preserve that condi- 
tion of health in which all pupils are supposed to enter school, and, by 
their constant though unobtrusive influence, to make that condition 
permanent. 

The subject of the preservation and promotion of physical health in 
the school involves the following considerations: (I) the character of the 
site on which the school building is erected; (II) the mode of 
Considera- constructing the building, as well as the location and construc- 
involved *^°" ^^ ^^^® out-buildings, — water-closets, etc.; (Ill) the construc- 
tion and arrangement of the class-rooms; (IV) the size, number, 
and distribution of the windows for the admission of light; (V) the mode 
of ventilation; (VI) the manner of heating the rooms, and the average tem- 
perature preserved in them by artificial heat; (VII) the adaptation of the 
school furniture to the physical wants and condition of the children; 

(VIII) the kind of discipline employed, in regard to hygienic principles; 

(IX) the degree of attention given to the personal condition of the pupils, 
so as to preserve cleanliness and prevent the communication of disease; 
and (X) the means afforded for physical exercise. Each of these will be 
considered in its order, according to the above enumeration. 

I. Modern sanitary science, fortunately, has given such particular 
attention to the subjects of site and exposure, and has impressed the public 
mind so thoroughly with the necessity of their healthfulness, 
'' that only willful ignorance or obstinacy will, in our day, permit 

a building designed for human occupancy to be placed in a manifestly un- 
healthy location. The healthfulness of a school site depends upon (1 ) the 
character of the soil; (2) its elevation ; (3) the circumstances which facilitate 
or obstruct proper drainage; (4) its remoteness from any stagnant water, 



HYGIENE 169 

or marshy ground, liable to produce malarial fevers; (5) its remoteness 
from any factory or establishment poisoning the air by the issue of 
deleterious and offensive gases; to which may be added (6) the amount of 
Bpace it affords for play-grounds, so as to facilitate physical exercise. 

II. The construction of the school building will depend on the number 
of pupils to be accommodated; the kind of school, as regards the sexes; and 

the grade, — whether primary, grammar, or high school. (See 
buildina School- House.) In regard to water-closets and urinals, it is 

hardly necessary to say, that they should, for convenience, be as 
near the school-house as possible, without being near enough to allow the 
perception of any odor. The approaches from the school-house should be 
under cover, the ventilation and the supply of light should be ample. They 
should also be enclosed from observation. 

III. Construction and Arrangement of Class Booms. — This varies 
with the conditions under which the school-house is built. The rooms, 

however, should always be constructed so as to allow at least 
rooms ^^^ cubic feet of air-space to each pupil, and 9 square feet of 

floor-space. The height of ceiling recommended by the best 
authorities is a minimum of 12 feet and a maximum of 15 feet, if the room 
is not very large. These provisions are absolutely necessary to furnish to 
each pupil the amount of air necessary for health. (See Ventilation.) 

I v. Currie, in School Education, remarks: "The provision for light- 
ing a school should have two ends in view: (1) a proper amount of Hght, 

and (2) its just distribution. The effect either of an excess or 
Wmaows. ^ deficiency of light is to strain the eye and cause a depression 
of spirits, especially as the day advances. In regard to distribution, all the 
parts of the school should be equally lighted, which may be more easily 
done with a few judiciously placed windows of respectable size than with 
a number of smaller, straggling apertures. Good ways of lighting a school 
are these : (1) Perhaps, the best of all is when the light is admitted from 
the roof, as it is then steady, equable, and free from shadow. (2) 1 he win- 
dows may be placed in the ends of the school room, or in two adjacent 
sides, so as to admit the light from the pupils left. Where there are win- 
dows in front of the classes, they should be at some distance from them, 
and in every case they should be at such height in the walls as to remove 
all danger from drafts when they are opened. School windows should be 
of the same shape as ordinary house windows; at any rate, lattice windows, 
with numerous, small, lozenge-shaped panes of glass should be avoided, as 
the light transmitted through them is so broken as to be extremely fatig- 
uing to the eye. (3) Each window should be fitted with blinds to moder- 
ate the intensity of light, when necessary, particularly to exclude the direct 
rays of the sun. If the windows are used for ventilation as well as hght- 
ing, th3 difficulty of using the blinds in such a case may be obviated by 
having a fixed Venetian blind outside the window at the top. and hanging 
the inside blind on a level with the bottom of it. (4) 'J'he tint of the 
school walls should neither be too dull, so as to absorb the light unduly, 
nor too glaring, so as to dazzle the eye by reflection. Of the colors com- 
monly employed: namely, the white, the ocher, the stone color, and the 
lightish- brown, the last two are obviously to be preferred". If the lighting 
of the school room is from the roof, care should be taken that the windows 



170 



HYGIENE 



or sky-lights should not slope to the south or west, as the heat and sunlight 
will be intolerable in hot weather, and their regulation by blinds will be 
difficult. If the lighting, on the other hand, is by side windows, " the _ 
height of the window sills from the floor", says Robson [in School Ai^chitect- 
ure) " should always be considerable, and the heads near the ceiling. Much 
of the cheerfulness of a school room, especially in a town, depends on the 
amount of sky which can be seen from the windows. The height of the 
sills from the floor, therefore, should never be less than five feet, and may 
be even more with advantage. This will enable the top or head to be 1 
placed nearly, if not quite, up to the ceiHng, and then the upper stratum f 
of vitiated air can be more readily removed". The importance of this sub- 
ject in regard to health is very great. Liebreich, in his report to the Col- 
lege of Preceptors of London (July, 1872), attributes several diseases of the 
eye to this cause alone; and Dr. Cohn asserts that of 410 students ex- 
amined by him, only one-third possessed good eye-sight, the remaining 
two-thirds having had their sight injured, in his opinion, by the deficient 
lio-hting of the school rooms in which they studied. A rough calculation, 
from researches made on the subject, gives 200 square inches of window 
glass as the proper number for each scholar. In the above remarks by 
Currie, the left side has been designated as the one from which the light 
should come, because this insures the fullest illumination of the page, with 
the least inconvenience, and the least injury to the eye. When light is 
admitted through the front of the room, the glare is directly in the face 
either of teacher or pupils, they being supposed to face each other. If it 
falls from behind, the shadow of the head is thrown directly upon the 
page; if from the right side, the shadows of the arm and hand, in the act 
of writing, equally obscure it. The light, therefore, should fall 
¥^ht' from the left side, and, as far as possible, from above. In even- 
^ ' ing schools, the lighting should be. as nearly as possible, equal to 
that by day. If gas is used, the glass cylinder with a reflecting shade is 
recommended, for the purpose of steadying the light and making it stronger 
and whiter. Ground glass shades are now generally discountenanced, their 
effect being to diffuse the light. For general illuminating purposes they 
are desirable, as in the parlor or concert room; but are out of place in the 
school room, or in any room where the object is to concentrate light upon 
a particular spot. 

V. The Mode of Ventilation. See Yentilation. 
YI. Many methods, based upon ingenious theories and provoking 
heated discussion, have been adopted to overcome the difficulties attending 
this subject; but it is, probably, not unfair to say that an en- 
heat' a ^^^^^^ unobjectionable heating apparatus, as regards health, has 
yet to be devised. Wood is, of course, too dear for general use. 
The ordinary stove, the cellar furnace, and all devices for warming air by 
passing it over heated metal surfaces are now entirely discountenanced, it 
having been discovered that a highly poisonous gas is set free, and passes 
through heated metal as through a sieve. The steam coil, placed outside 
of the school room and heating a column of air which is drawn from the 
outside, and, after heating, ascends into the room, has, of late, been exten- 
sively used. At the opposite end of the room, a grate, varying in size 
with that of the room, is placed; the theory being that, as the heated air 



HYGIENE m 

ascends in one end of the room, the cool and foul air is forced out at the 
other through the flue of the grate, in which a fire is usually kept to facili- 
tate the current. This method, while perhaps the least objectionable of 
any, has been opposed on the ground, that by it the stratum of air nearest 
the ceiling is kept warmest, while that nearest the floor, which should be 
the warmest, is least so. To obviate this difficulty, it has even been pro- 
posed to make the floor of stone and warm it after the manner of an oven, 
i, e., by kindling a fire under it. Whatever method is adopted, however, 
fluctuations of temperature should, as much as possible, be avoided, and 
the air of the room should be kept steadily at from 65 to 70 degrees. 

Yll. Several diseases have been traced to faultily-constructed school 
furniture, chief among which is curvature of the spine, with the diseases 
. consequent upon it. This is sometimes the result of insufficient 
turmiure. jigi^ting; but more frequently it arises from the improper con- 
struction of the desk and seat, or the arrangement of them. (See School 
Furniture.) 

YIII. The methods of discipline which militate against bodily health 
axe fortunately growing less in every civilized country, as more study is 
J.. .J. given to the subject of education. It may be said briefly that 
Jjiscipline. -yy-Jiatever discipline tends to bodily deterioration in any way 
should be discountenanced, as the object of discipline is to train, not to 
break down. (See Discipline.) Of the errors, under the head of school 
management, which affect health may be mentioned those which arise 
from (1) the length of ike daily school session. These errors are frequently 
due to the fact that courses of study are laid down first, with 
sessions *^® ^^^^ °^ accomplishing a certain result, and the pupils' 
powers are made to conform to them. By this inversion of the 
natural method, sessions of five and six hours, with only slight intermis- 
sions, are sometimes ordered; this can result only in physical injury. The 
reversal of this, i. e. , a study of the child's physical necessities first, and a 
school course based on them, will insure the adoption of the only safe and 
reasonable method consistent with health. This should be so arranged, by 
a judicious alternation of sedentary occupations, physical exercises, and re- 
cesses, that no "violation of the primary laws of physiology", as Prof. Owen 
terms it, may be possible. In a room supplied with proper hygienic facili- 
ties, four hours per day is thought to be the maximum for very young pu- 
pils, and five hours for older ones. (2) 77^6 number, lengthy and distrihu- 
iion of recesses must vary with the different ages of the children to such an 
extent, that the only practicable guide for their regulation must 
Recesses. -^^ found in the discretion of the teacher. It may be said, in 
general, however, that the weariness of the pupil, which is shown by his 
restlessness and want of attention, furnishes the best indication of the time 
when the ordinary text-book studies should be superseded by physical ex- 
ercises, or by the absolute recreation of the play-ground. (3) The number, 
length, and distribution of vacaiions are, in a general way, governed by 
. the same consideration that prescribes the number, length, and 
Vacaiio7is. (distribution of recesses; namely, the freshness, both mental and 
physical, of the pupil, with such modifications as may be suggested by 
climate, prevailing contagious diseases, or other conditions. The tendency, 
of late years, in the United States, has been to begin the school session 



172 HYGIENE . 

about the first of September, and to continue it uninterruptedly — witb n 
slight iatermission of a week during the holidays — till the following June 
or July. By this arrangement, a long, continuous vacation is insured dur- 
ing the warmest season of the year, when, it is claimed, rest is most 
needed. It has been objected to this, and perhaps with reason, that 
the heat of the summer months renders them unfavorable for that out- 
door exercise which is most needed for the recuperation of the system, 
and that the health of pupils would be promoted rather by confining 
them indoors. As long, however, as the summer heats are avoided by 
a flight to the sea-shore or the mountains, this practice will probably 
prevail; and though it may be said that the poor of cities, who are by 
far the largest patrons of the public schools, cannot afford to leave the 
city for summer retreats, it must be remembered, on the other hand, 
that the greater prevalence of fatal diseases in cities, during the summer 
months, renders a vacation desirable even in their case. (4) The regu- 
lations of the school may, by their severity, seriously interfere 
Rejula- y^ii]^ bodily health, by checking or entirely repressing that activ- 
ity which is so marked a characteristic of childhood and youth. 
Reid, in his Principles of Education, says, "There is nothing in which 
parents are often more tyrannical and unreasonable than in expecting 
children to be quiet and good, and give them little trouble, when they 
will not put themselves to the least trouble to find suitable occupation for 
the active and restless faculties of their children. The trouble that a child 
gives to those in charge of it, should very often be viewed as an effort of 
nature to recall them to their neglected duty". The degree and kind of 
restraint, exercised over pupils, therefore deserve careful consideration. In 
this connection must be condemned all those restrictions which 
hestraint. repp^gg^ fQj. j^^y considerable time, that innate activity which is 
a necessity of the child's very being, and the repression of which, though 
not immediately and actively productive of disease, becomes passively so 
by the condition of atrophy which it tends to produce. Want of exercise 
is frequently as inimical to health as excess of it. The number' and length 
of lessons, also, by their excess may become physically injurious. 
Lessons, a^jj-j^ young children", Currie says, "a lesson should not aver- 
age in duration more than a quarter of an hour, and on no account exceed 
twenty minutes. It is hard enough to sustain the attention, even for this 
period; and no child will be able to retain more than we can tell him 
within it. The teacher should subdivide his lesson rather than trespass 
beyond this limit. Lessons of different kinds, i. e., occupying different 
senses, should follow each other; this is a great relief. It is absurd to speak 
of these frequent changes as causing loss of time". Excitement and over- 
work, also, should be avoided. The same general directions, however, 
given in regard to the number and length of recesses, are applicable here. 
The lessons assigned by the teacher and studied in his presence may be 
easily directed; but those which are pursued at home should receive equal 
attention. (See Home Lessons.) 

IX. Cleanliness, being a necessary condition of health, should be 

strenuously insisted upon. Cleanliness of the person will sometimes be 

Personal found, especially in schools among the very poor, to be neglected. 

habits. The danger of the outbreak of disease, or of its communication 



BIAGINATION 173 

from this source, is always great in large schools; and, therefore, the 
frequent use of the lavatory, in such cases, is necessary. Cleanliness 
of clothing is no less necessary to prevent the communication of disease. 
Realizing the neglect of a proper care of the clothing, natural to children 
through thoughtlessness, many school boards have made the daily dusting 
and brushing of clothes by the pupils a part of the school routine. In 
Germany, this is often insisted upon, and the necessary provision made 
at the expense of the school. Cleanliness of habits is a no less essential 
condition of good health, and should be watched, as far as may be, and en- 
forced with a view to the prevention of ill health. It frequently happens 
that diseases, more or less contagious in their nature, break out in schools, 
and lead to the closing of the schools for a time, with sometimes more 
serious results. In many cases, these could have been prevented, or con- 
fined to the original case, by a proper precaution on the part of the 
teacher. Ophthalmia, hooping-cough, scrofula, scarlet fever, small-pox, and 
skin diseases, whether of the head or the body, are cases of this kind. A 
slight knowledge of the symptoms should apprise an intelligent teacher of 
the danger at once, and secure the removal of the case to the home or the 
hospital. 

X, That exercise is one of the most effective of all agencies in preventing 

disease, is now generally admitted, though the excess to which it is often 

. carried in our day has, for some time, been creating a reaction 

exercise ^o^^^^^ it- '^^'^ phase of the question which calls for attention 
here, is its use not so much as a means of development, as in 
promoting health. On this account, one of the most important accessories 
of the school-house is the play-groiind. Whether this is used as a place 
for continuing the discipline of the school room, or simply as a spot where 
children may be absolutely free to pursue their games, its size, location, 

and exposure should be carefully considered. 

IMAGINATION", Culture of. Imagination is the power by which 
conceptions, originally formed from the perception of natural objects or 
their representatives* are reproduced in a fictitious combination which 
resembles the natural. This faculty, existing as it does, in a greater or 
less degree, in every mind, and entering to some extent into almost every 
mental act, must be placed among the few great powers of the mind which 
demand careful cultivation. The influence of the imagination 
Influence, ^g gq^^i^Hy felt in moral and intellectual action. By its aid, the 
man of science, recombining the elements gathered by an observation of 
the visible world around him^ projects his thought into the unseen universe, 
and determines the existence of conditions which knowledge alone could 
never detect, but which observation serves only to confirm. Through the 
influence of imagination alone, the record of the past becomes a guide and 
a warning to the present. Thus, the hand of charity is opened to relieve 
necessities which the active exercise of this faculty pictures to us as exist- 
ing in the homes of want and misery. The every-day thought: of the boor, 
and the rare flight of the man of genius are alike indebted to its aid. The 
universaHty of its presence, therefore, and the danger attending its unregu- 
lated development, constitute its peculiar cl^im to ^ttentioB at the hands of 
the educator. 



174 IMAGIXATION 

Notwithstanding this, however, the need of a systematic cultivation of 
the imaginative faculty seldom receives practical recognition. This is 

owing somewhat to the fact that the want which would be 
Culture. p^.Qiiuced by its total neglect, is partly met by its indirect and 
irregular cultivation in the studies of any ordinary school course; but more 
to the hidden nature of its action, and the want of that subtle discernment 
necessary in the teacher to detect its influence in the mental operations of 
the pupil. A knowledge of its power and of the consequent need of its 
cultivation is derived almost entirely from our own experience. The ex- 
tent, therefore, to which it influences or controls the judgment, is appreciable 
only in our own case, and in that only approximately; and, hence, an 
analysis of its effect on the thought or actions of others becomes a matter 

of extreme difficulty. The neglect of its cultivation in the 
Neglect. oYdansiVj school curriculum is productive of results hardly less 
pernicious than its abuse by undue stimulation; for, while by the latter 
the judgment and reason are subordinated, and the mind is turned from 
the consideration of the practical, and concentrated too exclusively upon 
the ideal, thus enveloping the daily concerns of life in a kind of mental 
mirage, which results in disappointment and discouragement when the 
cloud is dispersed; by the former, the duU, matter-of-fact phase of existence 
acquires undue prominence, to the suppression of all sentiment and that 
love of the beautiful which cheers and helps us to find, even in the com- 
monest aspects and the least fortunate circumstances of life, reason for 
admiration and gratitude. These considerations should secure for it care- 
ful attention. 

The development of the imaginative faculty begins at a very early 
period. The consciousness on the part of the child of objects external to 

itself, constitutes perception. This is very soon followed by 
ment^' conception, which consists in taking from the object perceived a 

mental picture capable of reproduction at pleasure, in the absence 
of the original. This latter may be called the first act of the imagination — 
the storing of the mind with materials for future use. Simultaneously with 
this, or only shortly after, occurs the naming of these materials — the 
association of thoughts with words, with a view to their expression as 
language. (See Intellectual Education.) Thus far, the action of the 
imagination depends upon the perception of actual objects. It now remains 
for the imagination to use the materials already provided, by discarding 
the actual object, and forming, partly by the aid of words as symbols of 
general ideas, an ideal picture; or, independently of words, and by its own 
act, creating for itself scenes and images not less vivid than their tangible 
representatives. The work of the imagination, therefore, is complementary 
to that of observation. The order is, (1) perception, (2) conception, (3) 
imagination. The action of the latter is presupposed by that of the two 
former. Knowledge alone — the mere storino- of the mind with facts and 
conceptions — would be of little value Avithout the vivifying power of 
imagination. Its function is to lift the mind from the contemplation of 
the actual, and carry it beyond the field of mere observation, into those 
ideal regions where the tangible has no existence, or where Hs existence 
cannot be actually verified. 

In the cultivation of the faculty of imagination, several methods are 



IMAGINATION 175 

open to the teacher, the most common of which are pictures, oral narratives, 
and reading, or combinations of these. In all, the attention is the prin- 
cipal object to be secured; since thus only can a vivid mental pic- 
ture be formed, and any other is worse than useless. The picture 
is, of course, the surest instrument for accomplishing this result, since it is 
a direct appeal to the eye — the earliest and most powerful agent by which 
knowledge is obtained. It is desirable, therefore, that the pictiire should 
be clearly drawn or painted, and in as simple or elementary a form as is 
consistent with the idea of completeness. A few salient features, therefore, 
are all that are necessary for this purpose; since fine gradations of color or 
shading can be observed only at the expense of the general impression. In 
oral narrative, the degree to which the clearness of the general impression 
is produced, depends entirely upon the teacher. A warm, sympathetic 
nature is here the only qualification. By it he is enabled to place himself 
on the pupil's level, to enter into his thoughts, and by the use of figures 
and illustrations familiar to youthful minds, to produce a correct and 
precise mental image. Any other disposition than this is a decided dis- 
qualification for the cultivation of the imagination by this method. Where 
the picture and the oral narrative are used together, the former should not 
be exhibited till after the description. It should then be produced to re- 
inforce the description and give it greater clearness; but, if it is exhibited 
before that time, the attention is drawn to it at once, to the neglect of the 
narrative. Pictures which are to be used for the purpose of illustration, 
should, if possible, be new to the pupil in order to produce their best effect. 
Of the methods mentioned, however, for the cultivation of the imaginative 
faculty, reading is not only the most common, but is, in most cases, in- 
dispensable. The requisites in this case, however, are stiU the same. The 
object being always to fix the attention as powerfully us possible upon a 
mental picture, the style should be simple and clear, but graphic and 
forcible, abounding in concrete terms, not in abstract phrases, and appealing 
to the experience of the pupil, and awakening his sympathies. An ex- 
cellent test of the clearness of the mental picture formed is that of 
recalling at the end of the reading, the scenes, incidents, and actors in the 
order of their introduction or occurrence. Almost every branch pursued 
in the ordinary school or college course affords some opportunity for the 
cultivation of the imaginative faculty, but special fields for its, most active 
exercise are found in geography, history, and poetry. Even in the teaching 
of subjects usually considered dry and uninteresting, there is field for the 
exercise of this faculty. Grammar, mathematics, political economy, and 
logic, if illustrated by a teacher of active fancy, can be freed, in large 
measure, from the abstract nature which is supposed to be essential to 
them, and which renders them ordinarily so uninviting. _ In regard to the 
use of fiction as an agent in the cultivation of the imagination, much dis- 
cussion has arisen, the objection usually urged being that its effect is to 
stimulate this faculty unduly. This is probably true of one class only; 
namely, those in whose minds the imaginative faculty exists by nature in 
an abnormal degree. Where this power is deficient, it will hardly be said 
that the perusal of works of fiction can do more than do develop the faculty, 
so as to bring it into proportion with the other mental powers; while tho 
probability is, that the result will fall short of this. In the remaining class. 



176 IMITATION 



those in whom this faculty exists in a normal proportion, the evil result of 
stimulation produced by the reading of works of liction, has, perhaps, been 
overrated. The reading alone can only serve to fill the mind with high 
ideals — the harm resulting has probably been produced by neglecting to 
provide the necessary means or occasions for an active exercise of the high 
and generous sentiments and resolves thus aroused. If we read continually 
of suffering, but never give alms, habit soon causes us to accomodate our- 
selves to this condition as the natural one, and the mental excitement 
ceases to seek any outward, active expression. 

"All mere drudgery", says James Freeman Clarke, in Self -Culture 
(Boston, 1880), "tends to stupefy the imagination. And all work is drudg- 
ery which is done mechanically, — with the hand and not with the mind; 
when we are not trying to do our work as well as possible, but only as well 
as necessary. Such work stupefies the ideal faculty, quenches the sense of 
beauty". 'J'his is a truth of great practical significance to the teacher. 

IMITATION". The possession of this important faculty, and the 
desire to exercise it, constitute two essential elements of all human progress. 
From childhood to maturity, and even beyond — as long, indeed, 
ojjice. ^ ^j^g effort at self-improvement is kept up — a vast majority of 
the human race are employed merely in imitating the models that have 
been set up by individual genius, or by the accumulated wisdom and taste 
of ages; and their success in life is greater or less, according to the accuracy 
of their imitation. Especially during childhood and youth, is this faculty 
brought into active play. It is the necessary accompaniment and basis of 
instruction, the stepping-stone to all excellence. Being of so great im- 
portance, therefore, in nearly every department of education, it should 
recei7e the special attention of the teacher. — The conditions of 
of ^success s^^c^^s i^ imitation are chiefly two: (1) accurate observation, 
and (2) a retentive memory. Probably few have noticed how 
slightly the faculty of observation is usually exercised. This, however, may 
be easily illustrated. Of twenty persons listening to a speaker whose voice 
has some peculiar tone or inflection, it will probably be found that only 
half a dozen or perhaps even less will notice it, unless it is very marked; 
and of these, only two or three will be able to reproduce it with any degree 
of accuracy. How often do men differ as to the form or color of some 
feature in the face of an acquaintance ! For example, let a draughtsman, 
whose attention has not previously been specially called to the object, be 
asked to draw a rose-leaf. The probability is, that he will confess his in- 
ability to do so though he would recognize a rose-bush without difficulty. 
Instances might be multiplied of the loose, general way in which this faculty 
is used, the result of which is, that only an indefinite impression is left on 
the mind, instead of an accurate picture. (See Attention.) If it be 
granted then, that mere imitation, when uncultivated, cannot be depended 
on, it will probably not be denied "that a good memory, and, in most cases, 
a certain degree of mechanical skill, is necessary, when it is cultivated, to 
produce the best results. 

It only remains, therefore, to point out a few of the studies and pursuits 

in which imitation is the chief instrument, and to indicate some of the 

Field of inethods by which it may be made most efficient. Among the 

actioity. first, may be enumerated writing, map-drawing, as now generally 






INCENTIVES — IXDUSTRIAL SCHOOL 177 

used in teaching geography, and nearly all the arts; among them, draw- 
ing, with all the professions that immediately depend upon it, as sur- 
veying, civil engineering, mechanics, architecture, together with all the 
natural sciences in the teaching of which, sensible objects are to be repre- 
sented. In learning to speak a foreign language, also, a direct appeal is 
made to the faculty of imitation. Among the methods used for producing 
efficiency in imitation, the kindergarten system is of great value for insur- 
ing steadiness of hand and accuracy of eye. (See Kindergarten.) The 
usual school exercises of reading, declamation, dialogues^ etc., are more or 
less successful, according to the closeness with which the feejings and ex- 
pressions of imaginary persons are imitated. 

INCENTIVES, School, consist of rewards of various kinds, offered 
to pupils for progress in study and good behavior; such as " good tickets", 
certificates of merit, books, and other things awarded as premiums for ex- 
cellence either in proficiency or conduct. Besides these, various expedients 
are resorted to for the purpose of exciting emulation, which are also to be 
classed among school incentives; such as giving public praise, awarding 
merit marks, putting the names of meritorious pupils upon a?-o/Z of lionor, 
suitably embellished and framed, and hung in a conspicuous place in the 
school room. Daily or weekly reports to parents showing the number 
of merit marks received by the pupil, as compared with the full number, 
and thus exliibiting the standing of the pupil, are very generally used by 
teachers as an incentive. The dismissal of pupils from school previous to 
the usual time is also to be placed among the same class of incentives. To 
this, however, strong objection has been made, inasmuch as it seems to 
imply that attendance at school is burdensome and grievous, whereas it 
should be made pleasant and attractive; but the efficacy of this incentive, as 
every teacher knows, is very great, because it appeals to the natural activity 
of the child, upon which the confinement of school cannot but operate as 
a restraint, however well it may be administered; and experience has 
demonstrated that an occasional relief from this confinement does not, on 
the whole, weaken the pupil's attachment to school. All such incentives, 
it must be borne in mind, are of a secondary nature; and the educator 
should always exercise care that their influence should not be so exerted as 
to impair the force of higher and more enduring motives to good conduct. 
(See Rewards.) 

INDUCTIVE METHOD, in education, is but another name for the 
developwg metliod (q. v.). It is so called because it is based upon the 
principle of logical induction, or the process of deriving general principles 
from an observation and comparison of individual facts. Instead of teach- 
ing definitions, principles, and rules arbitrarily, and illustrating them by 
facts, the teacher who uses the inductive method, calls the attention of the 
pupil to a sufficient number of the facts to enable him to find the principle 
or rule for himself. The learning of the definition, which, in the deductive 
method, is the first thing to be done, in the inductive method, is the last 
step in the process. Most text-books follow the deductive method, but 
the most effective elementary instruction is inductive. 

INDUSTRIAL SCHOOL. The term industrial education is used 
to designate the training of pupils, not only in the common branches of 
instruction, but in certain industrial or business pursuits. An industrial 



178 INSTRUCTIOX 

school, in the widest sense of the word, denotes any school for teaching one 
or several branches of industry; but the special schools of this kind, and, 
in particular, those of a higher grade, are more generally comprised under 
the name of technical schools; and the name industrial school is usually 
restricted to a school for neglected children, in which training in manual 
labor or industrial pursuits constitutes a prominent feature of the plan of 
education. The common schools, however, sometimes have classes, in which 
children are instructed in certain industrial pursuits. 

INSTRUCTION (Lat. instructio) is the communication of knowl- 
edge. Education trains the powers of the individual, in order that he 

may attain to the perfection of his being; instruction supplies 
office ^^"^ ^^^^^^ something that is objective or external. Instruction 
* has specially to do with the intellectual development of the 
child, and is an instrument in the hands of the educator, which he can 
wield with the greatest precision and in the most skillful manner. He may 
attempt to act on the feelings and the volitions; but so obscure are the 
operations of the soul in these regions, that he may produce exactly the 
opposite effect to tliat which he intended. But when he communicates 
knowledge, he knows that, if the pupil is capable and attentive, he will re- 
ceive exactly that which it is intended he should receive. Moreover, 
knowledge stands in close relation to the feelings and volitions; and, ac- 
cordingly, the teacher employs it for the purpose of influencing and direct- 
ing these. Thus, it comes to pass that instruction occupies the largest 
part in the work of education, and constitutes that portion which can be 
undertaken and provided for by a community, since it can be delegated by 
a parent to a regularly trained teacher with the best results. Instruction 
is putting something into the mind ; education is strengthening and devel- 
oping the powers of the mind. It is plain that a teacher should put noth- 
ing into the mind which does not train and develop its powers; but as it 
. . is possible to do so, and as this frequently takes place, instruc- 
ivisions. ^^^j^ -g ^Q i^g divided into educative and non-educative; and one 
of the most important questions which a teacher can investigate, is the 
nature of educative instruction. There are three qualities which attach to 
all educative instruction: (1) Instruction, to be educative, must follow 
the natural laws of the intellectual development of man. Man's intellectual 

life begins in the exercise of the senses. He accumulates a large 

Intellectual number of individual observations. In these observations, like 

ment' g^^^^rs to like. A child looks at a tree; and the tree produces 

an impression on his mind. The next day, he sees another tree; 
and the resemblances in this tree strike his mind, and recall the former 
impression. The two impressions thus unite, and form a stronger impres- 
sion than either separately. Other impressions of a similar nature unite, 
until the child forms a definite notion of a tree. The child is thus gather- 
ing into unities the various impressions which he is continually forming; 
and this process continues. He learns the individual first, and groups his 
observations. Thus instruction, to be educative, must always proceed from 
the individual to the general, from the concrete to the abstract. There is 
no reversal of this process in education; but the process is often reversed 
in instruction with baneful effect. To the teacher, the general truth con- 
tains the sum of all the particulars, and he thinks he gives to the child this 



INSTKUCTION 179 

general truth with all its contents, when he urges it upon him, makes him 
commit it to memory, and frequently recalls it to his mind; but the fact 
is, that the child learns the general truth without the contents. He has 
the shell without the kernel. The result is, either that the truth lies dor- 
mant until experience gives him the particulars, and he may then recall the 
truth, or that the child is luUed into the belief that he has learned some- 
thing when he really knows nothing, and his mind is prevented from step- 
ping forward in that direction, by the behef that he knows the truth already. 
Furthermore, this non-educative instruction loses a great opportunity. If 
the child is allowed time, and is supplied with a sufficient number of indi- 
vidual instances, he is sure to make the generalization himself. Nothing 
imprints the truth more permanently than the discovery of it for himself, 
and nothing brings into play all the powers of the soul more healthily than 
the discovery of a truth. The teacher must, therefore, always proceed from 
the concrete to the abstract; but, in employing this method, he must exer- 
cise very great patience. Generalization is a slow process, somewhat un- 
certain in time. The child seems to be just reaching the truth, but he 
turns away with a bound, and he may take some time more to master it 
completely. Or he may, one day, have a glimpse of it, and the next, it 
has vanished. But, however slow or uncertain the process may be, it is 
the only truly educative mode of giving instruction. The teacher, like 
Socrates, is a maieutic artist, and he must watch carefully over the birth 
of a truth, not forcing nature, but giving nature every help that she will 

willingly receive. (2) Educative instruction arrests the atten- 
Aiteution tion and awakens the interest of the pupil. The rule implied 
irUerest ^^ *^^ statement may be expressed in the words, that the 

teacher must attach the new matter to the old by a natural con- 
nection, that he must pass from the known to the unknown. The subject 
of attention is one that cannot be discussed here. We can note only how 
it is to be secured. The pupil must be on good terms with his teacher. 
Where there is antagonism, there can be no satisfactory attention. The 
pupil may, indeed, attend throue:h fear; but fear is a weakening force; and 
the result is, to associate in his mind with the subject comprehended feel- 
ings of dislike and disgust, so that at the end there is no interest in the 
subject, but, on the contrary, a wish that he may never have to do with it 
again. Then, the teacher must carefully consider the state of the pupil's 
mind, when he commences. Probably, he has come from the play-ground. 
His mind is occupied with some occurrence that has taken place there, and 
his mind will remain occupied with it the whole hour, if the teacher does 
not employ means to displace it. Some little time should be given to the 
pupil to calm down; and then, when he is prepared to listen, the teacher 
should start with something that the pupil knows weU and feels an interest 
in, and from that gradually work his way to the new matter which he has 
to communicate. The result of his teaching should be, that the child has 
a stronger interest in the subject than he had before. To rouse this 
interest, the teacher has to remember that every intellectual activity is 
closely connected with corresponding feelings and exertions, and the 
teacher succeeds when he makes his intellectual propositions awaken the 
appropriate feelings and exertions. (3) Educative instruction always keeps 
in view the principal aim and end of education. It always works for 



IgO INTELLECTUAL EDUCATIOK 

a tjurpose. The object is not to cram the pupil with a certain amount 
of knowledge, to give him an hours dose of information, without regard 
to his whoTe being. It deliberately asks whether the information which 
is to be imparted, will fit into the harmonious development of the child s 
nowers It will, therefore, proportion the amount given to the healthy 
evolution of the child's nature. It will not look to the greatest success in 
the particular department, but to the greatest success compatible with the 
healthy action of aU the child's powers. • . .-u 

It is not necessary, in an article like this, to go further into the 
Questions to which the subject of instruction gives rise. Ihey are treated 
in separate articles. We may, however, take a general view 
Sii^ieots of Q^ ^j^Q^. n) We should have to treat of the subjects ot m- 
instraction. ^^^^^^:^^^^ ry^^^^ ^^^ ^^ divided into those that relate to 
nature, those that relate to man, and those that relate to God. _ The 
first gives us the natural sciences, — a knowledge of the earth in its 
present state, geology, botany, zoology, physics, including astronomy and 
chemistry. Then come the abstract subjects arising out ot these: the 
science of numbers and of magnitude, arithmetic, algebra, and geometry. 
Next follows the knowledge that relates to man: physiology, psychology, 
and sociolocry; but the latter sciences cannot be taught scientihcally to 
children The main facts are made known concretely in literature, and 
therefore the pupil learns languages, — his own, modern languages, and 
ancient lancrua^es. Elucation insists that these should ultimately, and 
as soDU as possible, pass from being mere studies of words to be a means 
of acquainting the pupil with the feehngs, thoughts, and desires of great 
and good me?i, past and present. Closely connected with languages is 
the study of history; and alUed to history and intermediate between the 
first and second classes of study, is geography, - a knojvledge of the 
earth as it has influenced man and been used by him. Ihe third class 
of subjects relate to religion; but this is closely allied to the second, 
and, indeed, falls properly under it; for it is the knowledge of mans 
relations to God. (2) We should have to inquire into the educative 
value of all these studies, but this inquiry belongs to the special articles. 
Here it has to be remarked, that none of the subjects must be entirely 
omitted The mind of man must not be deliberately made one-sided. 
The multipHcation of interest is one of the great objects of education. 
(3) We should have to inquire into the methods of education; and (4) mto 
the organization, private and public, necessary to render instruction effec- 
tive. All these subjects are discussed in the ordinary manuals on m- 

INTELLECTXTAL EDUCATION. The term intellect (Latin, in- 

telledus, from int^r, between, and legere, to gather, or collect) is used to 

denote the faculty or faculties by which man knows, in distinction from 

those of sensihility and will. In the formation of the human 

CMure character, the culture of the intellect is of subordinate irapor- 

.'^''f^*. tance to that of the other two mental functions, — the proper 

xntellect. ^^^^^ .^ ^^^^ ^^^^^^ ^^j^^g (1) ^iH^ (2) sensibility. (3) intellect; 

for the intellect is only an instrument, the use of which must depend upon 
the natural strength and educational training of the other elements ot 
human character. There is, however, without doubt, a reflex action ot 



INTELLECTUAL EDUCATION 181 

sound intellectual culture, by means of which the propensities and tastes 
of an individual are ennobled, and his moral sense strengthened. In order 
to direct the education of the intellect, it is necessary to understand its 
operations and the mode of its growth from infancy to mature ao-e; the 
processes by which its powers may be guided, stimulated, and improved, 
and the agencies by means of which this improvement, or culture, is to be 
effected. The human mind acts, as it were, by separate facuhies; 
vacuities. -^ appears to possess distinct ])owers. 1'hese faculties, or powers', 
are without doubt, intimately associated. 'J hey are but functions of a 
single agent; but they are functions distinct, both in their mode of opera- 
tion and in the objects upon which they are exercised. To form an 
idea from a present object of sensation is obviously distinct from re- 
calling that idea when the object is no longer present. '1 his again differs 
essentially from the suggestion of one idea by the presence of another 
in some wny associated with it. Again, to create from the simple im- 
pressions derived from natural objects an original picture, or series of 
pictures, such as those of Hogarth on canvas, or of Eunyan, in written 
composition, is certainly a very different process from the selection and 
combination of elementary propositions so as to derive from them an 
original principle, or truth. Uhe mind is, nevertheless, a unit; and all 
its operations, of however diverse a character, may be conceived to depend, 
directly or indirectly, upon some rudimental process; but nothing would 
be gained practically by such a procedure; and, therefore, we may prop- 
erly conform to the common usage in this regard, and consider the 
intellect as comprehending many distinct faculties, which, of course, 
cannot be cultivated and strengthened by the teacher without a suf- 
ficient knowledge of their respective spheres of action, their modes of 
operation, and the objects upon which they are specially exercised. These 
have been conveniently classified and designated as follows: (I) 'J he 
acquisitive faculties, including consciousness and sense perception; (2) 
The repres'^.nt'dive faculties, including conception, association, memory, 
and imagination; (3) 'J'he elaborative faculties, including comparison, 
abstraction, generalization, judgment, and reason. 

The senses, those avenues of communication with the external world, 
are first to be considered, since probably ideas at first spring from 
^ sensation, which appears to be the primitive stimulus of activity 

K^ensation. ^^ ^j^^ whole animal kingdom, (b'ee Senses.) It is, however, 
in no other way connected with the mind than as the means of supply- 
ing the material upon which the first mental operations are performed; 
and when this material is afforded, the mind as an entirely independent 
agent may or may not act upon it, this act being controlled by what 
is called attention (q. v.), which is only a condition of activity assumed 
by the mind in regard to any of the objects of sensation or consciousness. 
When sensation and attention exist simultaneously, there must 
Ferception. ^^^^^^ what is called perception, sensation being simply the 
effect produced by external objects upon the bodily organs, and percep- 
tion the act of the mind in becoming cognizant of it as proceeding from 
some cause extraneous to itself. 'J'he product of these two acts, constitute 
ing what is called sense-perception, would be only momentary, or would 
last only during the presence of the object perceived, but for the existence 



182 INTELLECTUAL EDUCATION 

of a faculty by which the mind retains impressions thus made, recalls 
them voluntarily or involuntarily, and thus is enabled to make them the 
subject of independent mental action. These impressions, and in an especial 
manner those made through the medium of sight, become in this way a 
part of the mind; they are imprinted upon its very texture, as it were, like 
pictures upon the photographic glass. Hence the name ideas (from the 
Greek word \6elv, to see). This faculty is called conception 
Conceptioyi. ^^ ^^^ ^ j^ requires the most careful cultivation in childhood and 
youth; since it alone enables the mind to store up the materials of knowl- 
edge and thought in its wonderful and mysterious repository. The intellect 
of childhood is chiefly employed in the exercise of it • — in storing up ideas, 
and gathering materials out of which to produce its subsequent creations, 
whether these are the fantastic pictures of fancy, the more regular combi- 
nations of imagination, or the sequences of ratiocination. Whatever, 
therefore, hinders this process, shrivels the mind and stunts its growth. 
Its vitality dies out for want of exercise, and torpor takes the place of 
elasticity and vigorous life. This is, therefore, one of the first faculties to 
be addressed in education. Its activity is to be fostered by supplying it 
with abundant food — objects on which it may be exercised, and language 
designed to bring into clear mental view the conceptions already acquired. — 
The next mental process to be considered is association. In the 
Associa- £j.g^ stages of the mind's growth, there exists but little power of 
combination, certainly none of logical combination; but there is 
an elementary principle of intellection by which ideas tend to become linked 
together according to certain relations; this is called association (q. v.). 
Perhaps, the most important of the elementary associations established in 
regard to the conceptions is that of words or names with the conceptions 
of objects which they are thus made to represent. This is, without doubt, 
one of the earliest, as well as one of the most rudimental, of the mind's 
combinations. The association itself, it must be borne in mind, is all that 
is arbitrary; since it is not words themselves that are associated with the 
conceptions of the objects, but conceptions of the spoken words, formed 
through the medium of hearing. What is meant by asserting that the 
association alone is arbitrary, is that the spoken word, as an actual sense- 
perception, is retained and recalled by conception, and is, therefore, no 
more arbitrary than any other idea; but having no intrinsic relation to the 
conception for which it is to stand, it is associated with it arbitrarily, that 
is, by repeatedly bringing the two conceptions together, in accordance with 
that law of mental action by which ideas repeatedly brought into connec- 
tion suggest each other. 

Without the association of words with ideas, the mind could advance 
but a very few steps in its development; because, (1) it would be unable to 
receive any stimulus by communicating with any other minds; 
Language. ^2) jt would be powerless to control the order in which the 
conceptions would present themselves to the mind, or to divest them of the 
vagueness of revery or dreaming; and (3) no process of thought or reason- 
ing could be carried on without the assistance of language. This need of 
words is illustrated by the efforts of children to talk, and call tilings by 
names, long before the power of articulation exists, thus showing that, 
although they are unable to employ words for the expression of ideas, the 



INTELLECTUAL EDUCATION 183 

mind is constantly making use of them in carrying on its nidi mental oper- 
ations. — It is an important law that conceptions are more strongly 
associated when their corresponding perceptions have been associated. 
Thus, suppose it is desired to teach a child the meaning of the word ship; 
in other words, to associate in his mind the spoken word sliip with the 
conception of the ship, so that the one will always suggest the other. If 
he has never seen a ship, nothing but the actual perception will suffice, and 
he must be taken where one may be actually seen; but if he has seen the 
object without learning its name, the conception may be recalled to his 
mind either by questioning him or by showing him a picture of it. Without 
doing this, the word ship may be repeated to him, and he may pronounce 
it any number of times, without learning any thing, since it would be 
presenting to his mind a sign without showing what it signifies. In 
elementary instruction, this error is quite often committed. 

It is important to consider upon what fundamental or primary notion 
the mind proceeds in establishing the arbitrary association between things 

and their names; that is, between conceptions which intrinsically 
Things and j^ relation to each other. A slight observation will as- 

certain that the mind very early requires the notion of names 
as representatives of things, and thus comprehends the relation existing 
between a sign and the thing signified; not that this notion is made an 
object of actual consciousness or reflection, but that it is intuitively recog- 
nized by the mind, and is practically employed by the child in making known 
its wants or expressing its feelings. The question, '' What is it ?" so often 
heard from the lips of a young child on seeing a new object, appears gen- 
erally to have reference only to this notion. The child perceives the need 
of affixing a name to the object in order that it may become a definite con- 
ception, as weU as be prepared for expression; and when a name is given, 
however arbitrary or unintelligible, the inquiry proceeds no further, the 
child appearing entirely satisfied. It is only when the mind has made 
more progress in development and has acquired a knowledge of other rela- 
tions, that this question can possibly have any other import. Yery much 
of the early development of a child's mind thus consists in acquiring a 
knowledge of words, but, let it be carefully observed, of words only as 
representatives of actual conceptions. In this way the knowledge of 
things and the knowledge of words, increase pari passu, and the mind is 
prepared for operations of a more advanced character; since it is only by 

symbolizing individual conceptions that generalization can take 
^izaUoii' V^^^^y *^^* is, that individuals can be conceived with reference 

exclusively to certain qualities which they possess in common, 
and thus be arranged in classes. This office of language has been ex- 
plained in the following manner by a very acute writer (H. L. Mansel) : 
''Intuitive generalization consists in directing the attention, voluntarily or 
involuntarily, to the common features of several objects presented to us, 
neglecting or not perceiving those qualities which are peculiar to each. It 
is not a distinct cognition of the class as a class, nor of the individuals as 
individuals; but a confused perception of both together. To form a 
complete cognition of the individual, I must, by the aid of imagination, 
supply those distinctive features which I am unable clearly to perceive. 
To form a complete cognition of the class, I must separate the common 



184 INTELLECTUAL EDUCATION 

attributes from their connection with a definite time and place. But how 
are attributes, apart from their juxtaposition in space, to be so connected 
together, as to constitute a single object "/ The head and trunk and limbs 
of°an individual man are connected together by continuity in spa.ce, and by 
that continuity constitute a whole of intuition, whether distinctly recog- 
nized in that relation or not. How are the attributes of mankind in general 
to be separated from their position in space, and yet so united together as 
to constitute a whole of thought? To effect this we must call in the aid of 
language. The word is to thought what space is to perception. It con- 
stitutes the connecting link between various attributes — the frame, as it 
were, in which they are set — and thus furnishes the means by which the 
features characteristic of a class may be viewed apart froifl* the individuals 
in which they are intuitively perceived, and combined into a complex notion 
or concept". In regard to the same point, Whately remarks, in Elements 
of Logic: " The majority of men would probably say, if asked, that the 
use of language is peculiar to man; and that its office is to express to one 
another our thoughts and feelings. But neither of these is strictly true. 
Brutes do possess, in some degree, the power of being taught to understand 
what is said to them, and some of them even to utter sounds expressive of 
what is passing within them. But they all seem to be incapable of another 
very important use of language which does characterize man; namely, the 
employment of common terms [general terms) formed by abstraction, as 
instruments of thought; by which alone a train of reasoning may be carried 
on. And accordingly a deaf-mute, before he has been taught a language 
— either the finger-language or reading — cannot carry on a train of 
reasoning any more than a brute. He differs indeed from a brute, iu 
possessing the mental capability of employing language; but he can no 
more make use of that capability till he is in possession of some system of 
arbitrary general sig is, than a person born blind from cataract can make 
use of his capacity of seeing, till the cataract is removed". 

Next to the association of things with words as their representatives, 
is that founded upon a perception of res'^mhlance in the objects from which 
conceptions are derived. This, it will be perceived from what 
Besem- j^^s already been adduced, takes place prior to generalization, to 
ancdomj which it directly leaJs. There is, probably, no relation so ob- 
vious to a child as that of resemblance or analogy, and none 
that affords so much employment to its mind, or that affects it with more 
pleasurable emotions. This is particularly the case with the relation of 
analogy when found to exist between objects quite dissimilar. The facility 
and readiness with which very young children discern resemblances, 
whether they are founded upon form, color, or structure, indicate a 
natural aptitude of the mind to perceive the varieties of these qualities 
in different objects, — of these qualities especially, because they are ad- 
dressed to the sight, which of all the senses gives rise to the most vivid 
conceptions. The varieties of color (tints), form, etc., generally have no 
designations in the child's mind — no symbols in language; and, therefore, 
cannot be made distinct objects of conception or of consciousness; and, in 
the earliest stages of mental development, this is not required to enable the 
mind to carry on its rudimental processes. Very young children can learn 
to classify objects with respect to their resemblances in form, color, etc.; 



INTELLECTUAL EDUCATION 185 

and to require them to do this, is one of the best exercises that can be em- 
ployed to aid the development of their minds. The readiness with which 
children apply the same name to objects having only a general resemblance 
to each other in form, color, or structure, is another proof of this charac- 
teristic of the human mind. "Children", says Aristotle, "at first call every 
msLii father, and every woman moiJier, but afterwards they distinguish one 
person from another". The perception of resemblance is, thus, prior to 
that of ditference, and, apparently, for a very good reason ; since, if the re- 
verse were the case, the mind, instead of requiring immediately words as 
the representatives of classes, would need a word for every object of per- 
ception, and thus could make no advancement in developing the higher 
faculties. This was the doctrine of Festalozzi, and a basic principle of his 
system. There is no doubt that very great diversities in objects excite the 
attention more readily than corresponding resemblances, just as rapid 
transitions from one color to another, from intense darkness to a brilliant 
illumination, etc., produce activity in the perceptive faculties; and hence, 
the employment of such processes in the education of those mentally defi- 
cient; but Avhere any two objects are placed before a child, of which 
the points of resemblance and of difference are equally obvious to the 
developed and mature mind, the child will intuitively notice the former 
before he will the latter. The constitution of the mind seems to neces- 
sitate this. Objects which are very unlike may, indeed, have some points 
of resemblance which escape the notice of a child, and which, therefore, 
the teacher will need to point out so as to assist in their discovery, and, 
in this way, to cultivate the habit of observation. The whole structure 
of the intellect as a thinking and reasoning apparatus seems to be based 
on the ready recognition of likeness and analogy in the various objects 
presented to the senses. Isaac Taylor remarks, in Home Education: "The 
sense of resemblance runs before the power of discriminating or designat- 
ing differences; hence, it happens that by the infant and the savage the 
names of individuals are extended to species, and the names of species to 
genera". "Thus", as Mansel remarks, "by the aid of language, our first 
abstractions are, in fact, given to us already made; as we learn to give the 
same name to various individuals presented to us under slight and at first 
unnoticed circumstances of distinction. The name is thus applied to dif- 
ferent objects long before we learn to analyze the growing powers of speech 
and thought, to ask what we mean by each several instance of its applica- 
tion, and to correct and fix the significance of words at first used vaguely 

and obscurely". The association of the conceptions as dependent 

Intuitice upon an observation of resemblance, has been called intuitive 

^^^^[^^^^^'^' generalization; since it does not consciously follow any process 

of abstraction, because, from the failure of the undeveloped 
mind to notice distinctions and differences, no such process is needed for 
the purpose. For example, a child sees a book for the first time, and 
learns its name, book; now, on seeing another book, however different from 
the first in size, color, etc., he invariably applies to it the term book, by the 
perception of analogy leading on to intuitive generalization. Common 
names are, therefore, first learned, and particular or proper names only 
given to such objects as are constantly presented to the mind; since, by 
being thus more intimately kuow^n, their distinctive peculiarities 9.re more 



186 INTELLECTUAL EDUCATION 

clearly discerned, this discernment leading to an iJidiviclualization, as the 
next step in the growth or development of the mind. The operation 
of the sense of analogy is seen in the use of figurative, or more defin- 
itely, tropical language; and its rudimental character is illustrated by the 
fact that children and savages are particularly prone to the use of this 
lano-uage. Indeed, as before remarked, it is one of the most intense 
mental pleasures of the child to trace analogies in objects of consider- 
able diversity in general appearance, and to apply such metaphorical 
terms as will forcibly express them. This again adds very greatly to a 
child's power of expression, since, without the perception of these anal- 
oo-ies in objects, every variation would require some specific term, met- 
aphorical names ceasing to have any meaning whatever. This charac- 
teristic of a child's mind gives to the intelligent teacher considerable 
resources for illustration, particularly in the use of words and their appli- 
cation to the objects which they represent. Thus, the term cape would be 
much better understood if its exact literal import were explained, and the 
analogy exhibited between the head and a cape, or headland. It is un- 
fortunate that so few compound or derivative words in English are formed 
from the simple words of the language itself, and that recourse has been had 
to so great an extent to the Latin and .Greek languages for a supply of such 
roots; since, in consequence of this, most of the words of the language are nec- 
essarily taught as arbitrary terms, which, otherwise, would be the means of 
stimulating mental activity in the learner. A striking contrast has very often 
been made, in this respect, between the English and German languages, 
such terms as Regenschirni (umbrella), Sonnenschirm (parasol), Handschuh 
(glove), F'uigerhut (thimble), einsaugen (absorb), durchsichiig (trans- 
parent), etc., illustrating very clearly the fact referred to. This peculiarity 
of a language, in drawing almost exclusively from its own primitive words 
the materials for the construction of complex epithets, is also very 
prominent in the Greek language, and constitutes one of its excellencies. 
Where it exists, it must afford great facility in education, and must form 
the basis for processes v/hich are impracticable where a language, such as 
the English, is to be employed, which derives nearly all of its abstract and 
scientific terms from languages not merely foreign but entirely out of use. 
The growth of mind in its relation to language has been here dwelt upon 
at some length because of its importance as a source of practical knowledge 
to every teacher who makes the study of mind the basis of his operations. 
Arbitrary rules may be laid down, and applied; but the scientific teacher 
who investigates the foundation of these rules in the principles of in- 
tellectual science will best know how to adapt his methods to the diversified 
exigencies of his work. Association as an elementary function of mind, 
is dependent upon a variety of circumstances other than those enumerated; 
as time, place, cause and effect, and design. These are, however, of second- 
ary importance for the study of the educator. 

The peculiar functions of the representative faculties, memory and 
imagination should receive a careful study, since they underlie many of 

the most important processes which he is called upon to direct. 

Bepre- (Qqq Imagination, and Memory.) The elaborative faculties, 

faculties comparison, abstraction, and generalization, have already been 

referred to in relation to the rudimental stage of their operation; 



INTEKEST -- INTERMEDIATE SCHOOLS 187 

in the higher grades of instruction, they find constant exercise in the 

studies of mathematics and natural science, which form a part of the cur- 

, riculum of every high school, college, and university. Judgment 

fac^utes^ and reason pass through a gradation of development from the 

most elementary to the highest stages of education. 

Such is the field which a discussion of the principles of intellectual 
education embraces. In the practical application of these principles, the 
^ teacher is to be guided not only by a knowledge of the general 
vrinciiMs ^^^^^tions of mind and their development, but by all the pecu- 
* liarities of individual endowment which he may be able to 
discern. (See Character, DiscEKN^rEXT of.) He is to permit the mind 
to expand by its own intrinsic activities, only interposing restraining or 
stimulating agencies when and where he finds a tendency to abnormal or 
morbid growth. There are, however, special methods of operation in in- 
tellectual education, partaking more of a positive character, by means of 
which the teacher is directly to impart knowledge — to communicate infor- 
mation; and, thus, is opened up a consideration not only of the mind to be 
cultivated, but of the branches of knowledge to be taught, in relation to 
the several faculties which they tend to cultivate. (See Instruction.) In 
this connection, and by the use of the same guiding principles, the proper 
order of presenting these studies must be considered and ascertained, this 
order being correlated with the natural order in which the intellectual 
faculties are developed. (See Order of Studies. ) The final result of this 
department of education should be, to enable the individual, in all the 
circumstances of life, to exercise with efficiency and address the various 
intellectual faculties with which he has been endowed. (See Culture.) 

INTEREST. To awaken an interest on the part of the pupils in the 
subjects of instruction should always be a prominent object of the teacher's 
efforts, since it is an indispensable condition of all true success. Anteced- 
ently, the young pupil feels no interest in the school studies; he neither 
appreciates their importance nor has any desire to acquire a knowledge of 
the subjects of which they treat. But the skillful teacher knows how to 
stimulate curiosity, and to impress upon the mind of the pupil the idea 
that he is acquiring knowledge, and thus to awaken an interest in the 
processes of instruction. When these processes are appropriate and natural, 
the pupil's interest is easily sustained; and it will be generally found that 
a flagging interest is due either to previous defective training or to the 
endeavor to teach subjects for which the pupil's mind is not prepared. It 
is a psychological axiom that the mind has no less appetite for knowledge 
of the right kind, than exists physically for proper food to nourish the 
body. It is, therefore, the office of educational science to determine the 
kind of mental food proper for every age, and how it should be prepared 
so as to stimulate, while it satisfies, the mental appetite. There should 
also be individual adaptation, the teacher giving whatever attention may be 
necessary to the special inclinations, tastes, and capacities of his pupils. 
(See Attention.) 

INTERMEDIATE SCHOOLS are schools of a grade between 
primary schools and grammar schools, or between elementary schools and 
nigh schools. Such schools generally constitute an important part of the 
graded school system. Schools of a grade between elementary schools (iu 



188 INTERROGATION — ITALIAN LANGUAGE 

German, Elementarschule),&ud. colleges and universities, are of ten called 
middle schools (German, MUielschule). 

INTERROGATION, or the Interrogative Method, is an indis- 
pensable means of conducting most processes of instruction; particularly 
those of an elementary grade. Its office is either (1) tentative, or 

(2) illustrative. As a tentative process, the teacher us?s it to determine 
the quantity and the quality of the knowledge which the pupil has attained. 
Thus, in hearing recitations, the teacher, by means of questions, ascertains 
how much of the lesson previously assigned, the pupil has learned, and 
with what accuracy it has been learned; and on the kind of questions 
asked, as well as on the manner of asking them, depends the degree of skill 
and effectiveness of this important part of the teacher's work. The same 
is true, also, of the conducting of examinations by school inspectors or 
superintendents. The process of questioning is also tentative when used 
as preliminary to a course of instruction, in order to determine the amount 
of information, or the kind of ideas, already acquired by the pupil, either 
directly relating to the subject or remotely connected with it, and constitut- 
ing the elementary conceptions upon which it is to be based. Instruction 
on every subject needs such preliminary questioning. — Interrogation is 
illustrative when it is used as a direct means of instruction, in order to 
induce tlie pupil to combine his ideas in such a way that he may be led to 
a clear conception of the truth. This was the process used by Socrates in 
giving instruction; and hence, it is often called the Socratic method. Great 
skill can be exercised by the teacher in the use of interrogation for this 
purpose; indeed, the art of questioning [catechetics) becomes a special de- 
partment of the work of teaching, and has been so treated. Rules can 
scarcely be given for its attainment; but it may briefly be said that it 
depends upon (1) a thorough training of the analytic faculty of the 
teacher, (2) such a minute and accurate knowledge of the subject to be 
taught as Avill enable him to resolve it into its elementary principles, 

(3) a full appreciation of the pupil's condition of mind, both as to capacity 
and degree of attainment, and (4) sufficient practice in interrogation to 
produce facility in framing questions of every kind and form. A^^here 
these conditions exist, the questions asked will be an effective means of 
making every subject clear to the learner's mind. (See Catechetical 
Method.) 

INTUITIVE METHOD. See Object Teaching. 

ITALIAN LANGUAGE. The Italian language has no claims 

commensurate with those of the German or the French, to a place in any 

. regular course of instruction the object of which is general 

education. ^^"^^^^^^^ ^"^ which, to that end, embraces the study of one or 

' two modern languages. Its value for this purpose has not, 

however, been without advocates. Thus L. Gantter, the author of the 

article on the Italian language, in Schmids Encyclopddie (vol. Ill), in 

discussing the relative importance of the principal modern languages for 

tlie German gymnasia, from an educational point of view, assigns the first 

place to English, the second to Italian, and the third to French; and he 

appeals to Goethe, Niebuhr, Raumer, Gregorovius, and many other 

celebrities to prove that the educational impulse which may reavSonably be 

expected from a study of the Italian language and literature, would prove 



JUDGMENT 189 

etronger and more conducive to a general development of the mental 
faculties than that received from the study of French. Italian has, how- 
. ever, special importance for all students of music, vocal and 
Sue. instrumental, as well as for students of the fine arts. Music, in 
every country of the world, uses to a large extent technical ex- 
pressions borrowed from the Italian; the Italian opera is exceedingly 
popular in every large city of the world, and there is no student of the 
fine arts who is not anxious to complete his study of Italian art in Italy. 
These considerations have not only created a demand for instruction in 
Italian, but they are sufficiently important to recommend to students of 
music and of the fine arts a much more general study of this beautiful 
language than is to be met with at present; and it is to be regretted that 
universities, colleges, academies, and especially female institutions of a 
higher grade, do not, more frequently than is the case at present, afford to 
their pupils an opportunity to learn this language. 

The special motives which, in a majority of cases, lead to a study of 
this language, naturally suggest a method of instruction different from that 
pursued in the teaching of French and German. The beauty of 
'^^stic ^^' *^^ language, which is reflected in its structure and pronuncia- 
tion, and which is so intimately connected with the lofty position 
which Italian art has attained in the history of civilization, should be pointed 
out with special care. Exercises in grammar and translation will require 
comparatively little attention; for not only is the structure of the language 
unusually simple and easy, but its study is hardly ever begun until, in 
addition to the vernacular, the knowledge of some other language has been 
acquired. All the greater prominence, on the other hand, should be given 
to the practice of conversation; for only in this way will the jiupil fully 
realize the superiority of the language in point of beauty and euphony, 
and prepare himself for a visit to the country which, more than any other, 
captivates the affections of every artist. 'J he literature of Italy scarcely 
admits of a comparison with that of Germany or France; but the golden 
age of Italian literature presents names which will never fail to recommend 
the study of the Italian language to advanced scholars. Dante 
Literature, j,^^^^ ^^-^j^ Homer, Yirgil, Milton, and Goethe, as one of the 
greatest poets of the world, whom all civilized nations will always admire; 
and Italian would be studied, if it were only to read the Divina Commedia. 
See Cyclopcedia of Education. 

JUDGMENT, TrairLing" of. This department of intellectual culture 
needs no special attention, if the whole educational system, in other 
respects, is judicious and rational; ^. e., adapted to the individual both as 
to age (degree of maturity) and peculiarities of character or endowment. 
Where this is not the case, an efficient corrective may be applied by 
bringing into exercise the pupil's mental faculties in various ways and in 
connection with various subjects. The departure must be taken from the 
sphere of the pupil's experience; he must be led (1) to accurate observation 
of particulars — minute details; (2) to their collation, as preliminary to 
generalization; and (3) to their classification under appropriate heads. 
XVhen general principles or rules have been established in the pupil's mind 
in this way, his judgment will be brought into play in the application of 



190 KINDERGARTEN 

the principle or rule to particular objects or facts. Thus, in natural history, 
after the pupil has learned the characteristics of genera and species by a 
minute and accurate observation of individual specimens, he cannot, 
without an exercise of judgment, determine whether any particular 
specimen, previously unobserved, belongs to one or the other genus or 
species. He must have a clear conception of the distinguishing qualities, 
both of the individual and of the class, in order to determine whether the 
correspondence exists or not. As regards concrete objects, the judgment 
is exercised at a very early age, and is constantly trained more or less by 
every legitimate process of intellectual education; but as regards abstract 
truths, this faculty is one of the last to attain a full or mature development. 
Accuracy in judging depends very much on the mental habits formed 
during the period of early education. Habits of attention, careful observa- 
tion, dispassionate, conscientious reasoning, and a profound and earnest 
love of truth, will qualify any person for the exercise of a sound judgment 
in regard to any subject of study or investigation. A mental character 
based upon such habits will be free from prejudice, and will readily learn 
to eliminate all passion from its intellectual processes; and, hence, its 
judgments being solely based upon the facts acquired, will be correct or 
the contrary, in proportion to the accuracy and extent of the information 
possessed. 

KINDERGARTEN" {Ger., children,'' s gar deri), a ^ecnlisiT system of 
education, founded by Friedrich Froebel, designed to precede all other 
elementary training, and to prepare the child for regular instruction by 
exercising all its powers so as to render it self-active. While the reformers 

of education before his time, Pestalozzi included, whose assistant 
^tafidea^' ^^® ^^^' *^^^^^^ ^^^^ youthful mind, more or less, as a passive 

recipient of truth, goodness, and beauty, it was Froebel's 
fundamental idea to set the child to do whatever it could be induced to do 
as a kind of amusement, exercising its observing faculties in connection 
with its playthings and games, and thus to create in it an interest in 

learning. He discovered, by means of half a century's attentive 
deduced P^^^^^^^ ^^ teaching, in association with many other excellent 

educators, that the faculties of most children are stunted in 
infancy and earliest youth by the want of appropriate mental food; that 
every child may be developed (may develop itself) into a self-educator by 
appropriate amusements; and that, in this manner, pleasure may be made 
the most efficient instrument in the first stages of education. He studied 
all the plays and games in use from the most ancient times, in order to 
find their special adaptation to mental and bodily growth, and thus formed 
a complete philosophical system of early intellectual culture. This culture 

was to begin in the earliest years, Mdth ball plays, accompanied 
cvUiure^^ by snatches of song and rhyme; later, with a sphere, a cube, and 

a cylinder of wood, used for various amusing exercises, and 
calculated to enliven the attention, and increase the self -activity of the 
infant. The two little books for mothers, which contain his suggestions 
for this purpose, disclaim any merit of invention; he considers them derived 
simply from a diligent observation of the methods of many excellent and 
successful mothers. But it was not from books alone that he intended 



KINDERGARTEN 191 

that mothers should learn how to train their children. They were to be 
educated, as young children, in a hindergarten, and afterwards, before 
graduating from the upper classes, to learn the art of infant education in a 
model kindergarten. Jt was in this way that he hoped to render, in the 
course of time, all mothers true educators of infancy, the centers of happy 
family circles, and the priestesses of a higher humanity, so that they might 
be "in harmony with themselves, with nature, and with God". 

But mere family education being liable to one-sidedness and exclu- 
siveness, social education should begin early, in order to complement the 

former. During part of the day, the child should be in company 
education ^"^^^ many other children of the same age, and should engage in 

such plays as supply, in a gradually ascending scale, proper 
food for the mental and bodily appetites and functions, while making the 
company of little ones as happy as possible. This can be done only under 
the guidance of a true teacher, who should be a female capable, by natural 
endowments and previous study, to take the place, in this respect, of the 
mother. The locality should be a hall in a garden, with flowers, shrubs, 
trees, each child having its own flower-bed, so that it may learn how to 
raise plants, and to enjoy nature. The playful occupations of the pupils 
comprise a great variety of plays in a given order which, however, should 
not be absolutely fixed, but should afford a healthy change, without in- 
ducing habits of imperfect attention and restlessness. None of these 
occupations were the invention of Froebel; they had all been practiced 
more or less before his time. But their combination into a harmonious 
whole, their adaptation for mental food in every direction, and their 
development in detail must be set down as Froebel's creation; and the ex- 
perience had with them for more than twenty-five years, and in many 
hundreds of kindergartens, justifies the wisdom of the system. There is 
still much controversy among the followers of Froebel themselves in regard 
to the minor details of the system; and some improvement has been made 
upon his own first practical realization of the idea, which, from insuffi- 
ciency of means, could not be all that he desired; but the indefinite 
perfectibility of the system in practical details, according to its principles, 
insures its progressive success. 

The exercises of the kindergarten are alternately carried on in a sitting, 
and in a standing or walking position, for the sake of a salutary change, 

and are partly such as can, without special training, be guided 
Exercises. |^y. ^^^^, good teacher; namely, singing; the reciting of child-like 
poetry committed to memory by means of the teacher's frequent repetition; 
light gymnastics, marching exercises, and easy ball plays; acting the doings 
of men and animals; all these accompanied from time to time • with 
song, or turned into object lessons by frequent conversation on the things 
mentioned or represented; also amusing employment, with playthings, 
called gifts, of which there are several sets. (See Gifts.) The guidance 
of these occupations requires a practical training, on the part of the 
teacher, and a theoretical study which never can be too thorough, if the 
pupil's mental and moral development is to become what Froebel intended 
it to be. Each of these exercises serves a threefold purpose, — to produce 
forms of beauty, forms of life (such as resemble things that occur within 
the child's experience), and forms of knowledge (such as may lead to a 



192 KINDERGARTEN 

knowledge of the qualities, quantities and actions of objects). The cliild 
itself is to produce these forms; the teacher is not to teach them, but to 
lead his pupil by suggestions conveyed in questions or conversation, so 
that the child may become inventive. To do this properly, Froebel has 
advised a method based on the law of contraries and their comhination 
into a higher unit; but the teacher is to abstain from all learned lore — 
from using abstract expressions. Abstract notions and works are severely 
banished from the kindergarten; it is merely concrete facts, which the 
child can learn through the senses, and can clothe in its own language, 
that can become familiar to it by its own mental assimilation. Neither is 
discipline to be maintained by authority or by any mechanical means; but 

by the suggestions of the teacher, and by the pupils' own ab- 
Jjisciphne. f;Qj.ption in the interest of their occupations. Thus children are, 
at an early age, enabled to discipline themselves through pleasant em- 
ployment, to submit to the will of the majority of their equals, on the one 
hand, or to assert, on the other, their own free volition, if they can induce 
others to agree with them. Thus, they are to take their first lessons in 
moral self-government. 

An objection has been urged to the general introduction of the kinder- 
garten as being too costly; but experience has established the indisputable 

fact, that a good kindergarten need cost no more than the best 
Costliness, ppij^j^ry school. The genuine kindergartner — and none but 
such ought to be employed — can superintend more than a hundred children 
at a time, provided she begin with no more than twenty, adding twenty 
more as soon as she has a good assistant able to replace her; and again 
twenty more, and so on, whenever one more assistant is prepared to take 
her place. Such assistants may be pupils of the training or normal school 
classes, who wish to acquire the art of infant education, and need not be 
paid for their assistance. These pupil- teachers will not, of course, by 
merely six months' help in this way, be fully able to conduct a kindergarten 
independently; but they will learn enough to be valuable assistants, and to 
become good educators as mothers. 1'his is not merely an economical 
measure but is sustained by pedagogical principles. The little pupils of a 
kindergarten, from four to seven years old, will form several grades, that 
can simultaneously be engaged only in certain occupations; while, in all 
others, they must be separately employed. As, then, divisions into grades 
are indispensable, and the principal teacher must go from one to the other, 
she can leave all the grades under the guidance of proficient assistants, 
taking the pupil teachers along from division to division, thus affording 
them an opportunity to witness the greatest variety of exercises possible 
within a short space of time, and to practice every one under her direction. 
Besides, she can hardly fail to receive valuable support in the singing, 
articulation, and gymnastic exercises, from the talents of some of her as- 
sistants. But even more important is the following consideration. It is 
almost impossible to carry on a genuine kindergarten successfully without 
the exercise of a wide-spread and lively interest in it among the women, 
especially the mothers, of the community. So long as they do not fre- 
quently visit the institute, they will not fully appreciate its purposes and 
results; they will insist that their children should begin to learn the 
alphabet; and, if that is not done, they will perhaps take them away to 



LANGUAGE 193 

some primary school. Many Icindergariners of our country yield to the 
demand of the mothers, and make the alphabet and ciphering a part of the 
regular kindergarten exercises; but this is a positive loss to the children. 

Owing to the necessity of special skill and training in order to conduct 
a kindergarten efficiently, many persons who undertake this work fail, 

through want of preparation, to produce the results designed. 
efHc^ncTj ^^ *^^^ ^^^ spurious kindergartens have caused much complaint, 

and brought considerable discredit upon the system. The test 
of a good kindergarten is its obvious effect upon the pupils, in exciting 
cheerfulness, intelligence, activity, and a fondness for the school work. If, 
on the other hand, the children dislike the school, it is an evidence that 
there is a want of tact and skill in its management. There may, indeed, 
exist in such a school all the occupations recommended by Froebel, and 
each may be used according to the established formula; but if the spirit in 
which the exercises are to be conducted is missing, if the treatment is 
mechanical, all the moral influence which should spring from the cheerful 
self -activity of the child, is lost. If too, the teacher shows always the calm 
and dignified deportment of the ordinary class disciplinarian, instead of 
entering with all her heart into the harmless joy from which the child's 
self-government is to take a fruitful growth, and calming only the trouble- 
some excess of this mirth by now and then a look, a word, or a gesture, 
she is not well fitted for her calling. A genuine kindergarten teacher 
will, like the best of mothers, take a lively interest in remedying, as far as 
possible, the bodily, mental, and moral defects of every child under her 
care, — uncleanly and disorderly habits, want of attention, stammering, 
color-blindness, a bad gait or posture, imperfect articulation, etc. She will, 
in this way, earn the gratitude of the children and their parents, and exert 
a great moral influence. Her efforts in this respect are, in a great measure 
facilitated by the pliability of the child's powers, as well as by its desire to 
avoid ridicule, and to enjoy the society of its comrades. Abundant ex- 
perience teaches, that there need be no incurable cases of the above kind 
among children who have the full use of their senses; that all children may 
learn drawing, singing, correct enunciation, geometry, and many other arts 
and accomplishments that are. by common prejudice, pronounced attainable 
by those only who are specially gifted. It is evident, therefore, that a 
kindergartner can hardly be too well educated; and, also, that no education 
repays so abundantly its cost. — For literature of this subject, see special 
list in the Appendix of this work. 

liAWGUAGE (Lat. lingua, the tongue, speech), according to the 
ordinary acceptation of the word, is the utterance of articulate sounds for 
the purpose of expressing thought. This mode of expression constitutes 
one of the characteristic faculties of man: since no community of human 
beings, in historic times, has been found entirely destitute of language; and a 
broad line of demarcation separates every kind of human speech of which 
we have any knowledge from all the modes of expression used by brutes. 

The development of language in a child should not outrun his mental 

development; it should at first follow, and subsequently accompany it. 

Develop- The child, from his first infancy, has a tendency to give some 

ment. kind of expression to aU the emotions of his mind. At first. 



194 LATIN LANGUAGE 

various movements of the body, and inarticulate sounds serve for the 
purpose; when the perceptions become more distinct, the child looks 
around for more definite expressions, and finds them in the word-language 
of those who surround him. If the child has sound organs of speech, the 
task of the educator, at first, is comparatively easy. An artificial plan is 
neither necessary nor practical; an occasional influence is sufficient. By 
hearing the names of objects, actions, qualities, circumstances, and rela- 
tions, which he perceives, correctly and distinctly pronounced, the child 
obtains his first knowledge of words, and learns to associate them with the 
designated objects. The memory, without difficulty, retains a large number 
of words, and frequent practice soon leads to readiness of speech. Occa- 
sional conversations with the child on the objects of his attention, with 
little descriptions and narratives, afford him the necessary material for 
expressing the combinations of his thoughts, and aid in the development 
of his mind. Where the cultivation of speech is neglected in the educa- 
tion of a child, the intellectual development is likewise retarded. On the 
other hand, any attempt to force unduly the rapid development of speech, 
may lead to vain and thoughtless garrulity, or to a production of erroneous 
representations in the mind, which will obstruct its harmonious development. 
During this first stage of education, the mother is the child's natural and 
best teacher of language, and the language which the child thus learns has 
justly been called the " mother-tongue". Home education may receive a 
useful, and in many cases a very desirable, aid in a good kindergarten. 

The instruction provided for in the common schools of modern times 
aims chiefly at perfecting the pupil in his vernacular language. The course 
of instruction to this end embraces exercises in spelling, reading, 
ular^' writing, definitions, composition, English grammar, elocution, etc. 
There is still great diversity of opinion among educators as to 
the best methods of teaching each of these branches, and as to the relative 
position which each of them should occupy in the course of studies. 
This subject is fully discussed in the special articles devoted to 
Methods. ^^^ branches of instruction just enumerated. All educators, 
however, agree in regarding it as one of the chief aims of school education 
to give to the pupil a good knowledge of his vernacular language, and 
fluency in speaking and writing it correctly. Even in those branches of 
study which neither solely nor chiefly aim at improving the linguistic 
knowledge of the pupil, as arithmetic, geography, history, etc., every 
educator nowadays requires that pupils shall be trained in the correction 
of language, and taught to avoid common errors of speech. — See Marcel, 
Language as a Means of Menial Culture and International Communica- 
tion (London, 1853); and Tlie Study of Languages (N. Y., 1869); Whit- 
ney, TJie Life and Growth of Language (N. Y., 1875). 

LATIN LANGUAGE, one of the two classical languages, which as 
the language of one of the greatest empires of the world, and of one of the 
richest of literatures, and subsequently as the oflScial language of the Catholic 
church, the literary language of western Europe, and the mother of the 
Romanic languages, has been among the foremost agents in developing 
modern civilization. For a full account of its development as a branch 
of modern education see Cydopciedia of Education. We give here only a 
few practical suggestions as to the methods of teaching it. 



LATIN LANGUAGE 195 

However much the methods of teaching Latin may differ in certain 
details, no one should dispense with a thorough drilling in the inflectional 

part of the language and in the principal rules of syntax. Exer- 
Methods. ^jggg jjj translating from Latin into English, and I'jom English 
into Latin, are now quite generally connected with the very first grammar 
lessons. In accordance with the principles of modern educational writers, 
the exercises in translation are now, from the beginning, very properly 
given in most of the text-books in the shape of complete sentences. In the 
system of T. K. Arnold the inflectional peculiarities are learned gradually, 
as in the Ollendorff system, and almost the first step taken by the pupil is 
an exercise in construction. 

The very large extent to which words of Latin origin have been received 
into English can be turned to great advantage by the intelligent teacher. 

But few words will be met with in the Latin exercises, which 
^EnaUsh^ are not etymologically related to words in the English dictionary; 

and a constant reference to this kinship not only facilitates the 
acquisition by the student of a copious Latin vocabulary, but at the same 
time enlarges his knowledge of English. The introduction of young 
students who have sufficiently mastered the elements of the language, to 

the Latin classics is considerably obstructed by the want of good 

iuvenile j^^^nile works in the literature of Rome. If that literature 

books. ever had its Barbaulds and Edgeworths, their fame has perished 

with their works. The books which for centuries have been the 
first to be read in Latin schools, — Cornelius Nepos and Csesar, were 
certainly not written for boys and girls. Even in Rome, they were as little 
read by children of ten, eleven, or twelve years, as our children of that age 
are expected to read Shakespeare, Gibbon, or Macaulay; and it is, there- 
fore, undoubtedly a pertinent question, from an educational point of view, 
whether it is consistent with common sense to expect English boys and 
girls to read and appreciate writers whom the youth of the same age in 
their own country would have found too difficult to understand. Various 
attempts have been made, in modern times, to supply this want, and to 
provide young Latin students with suitable reading. Sometimes modern 
imitations of the ancient Latin have been selected for the purpose. Such, 

for example, is Willymot's Century of Maturinus Gorderius 
Text-boolcs. (joUoquies^ long familiarly known in Scotland under the name of 
Cordery. Certain portions of the dialogues of Erasmus have the same ob- 
ject in view. As the most successful attempt of the kind, many Latin 
scholars regard a little work entitled De Viris Illustribus Urbis Romce, 
and commonly known in the United States as Viri Eomce, by L'Homond, 
a French professor of the eighteenth century. This work contains the 
most interesting stories related by Livy, Valerius Maximus, Florus, and 
other eminent writers, as much as possible in the very words of those 
writers, and is still extensively used in the United States, Great Britain, 
France, and, to a less extent, in Germany. Attempts have also been made 
to epitomize special Latin classics for the use of young students; thus, in 
recent times, an epitome of Csesar, prepared by Dr. AYoodford, classical 
ma-ster in Madras CoUege, St, Andrews, has been in extensive use. Many 
of the Latin readers also contain attempts of this kind. The reading of 
Latin classics constitutes the principal part of the study of Latin wherever 



196 LECTtJIiES — LIBRARIES 

it is pursued, except when only the elements of Latin etymology are taught 
for the purpose of elucidating the structure of English. — See Cyclopcedia 
of Education . 

LECTURES, or Lecture System, a method of giving instruction 
by formal expositions, generally written out and read to the learners. Hence 
the term lecture (from the Latin, meaning reading or something read). 
Lectures are, however, quite often extemporaneous, or delivered without 
previous preparation of the language. The lecture differs from the lesson 
chiefly in dispensing with the ordinary processes of the recitation room — 
question and answer, repetition, etc. The learners simply listen, or take 
notes, while the lecturer reads or speaks, with or without illustrations by 
means of the blackboard, maps, pictures, apparatus, etc. Lectures, as a 
system of instruction, are chiefly depended on in higher education — in 
colleges and universities, also in technical, scientific, and professional schools, 
because the students are supposed to have acquired a considerable maturity 
of intellect, enabling them not only to receive knowledge without exercises 
specially designed to awaken attention or stimulate the understanding, but 
to exercise their own faculties in arranging it in their minds for use, — in 
other words, co-ordinating it with their previously acquired knowledge. 
They are, besides, supposed to appreciate the importance of the information 
communicated, so as not to need any special stimulus to self-activity. In 
elementary instruction, all these conditions are reversed; and, therefore, 
the lecture system is inappropriate at that stage. Li middle schools (second- 
ary instruction), lectures may be used with good effect, in connection, or 
alternation, with the ordinary recitation processes. When the material 
has been methodically arranged, and when the statements are definite and 
precise, the language simple and forcible, and the style earnest, lectures may 
be made to subserve a very useful purpose. 

LIBERAL EDUCATION, literally, that which is suited to the 
condition and wants of a freeman or a gentleman, that is, extending 
beyond the practical necessities of life; hence, contrasted with a practical 
education, or that which is designed to fit for mechanical or business pur- 
suits. A liberal education embraces within its scope instruction in all 
those branches which collectively are called the humanities (q. v.). 

LIBRARIES constitute one of the most important instrumentalities 
for stimulating the intellectual improvement of the people, as well as for 
the mental and moral training of pupils in schools. The value of a school 
library will depend upon the character of the books of which it is com- 
posed, and the uses to which it is applied. A large and expensive collection 
of books is not needed; but the books should be instructive and interesting 
to children, so that through their perusal they may not only obtain useful 
information, but imbibe a taste for reading. By this means, an antidote 
may, in part at least, be applied to the influence of the trashy, exciting, 
and sensational literature, which so greatly abounds at the present time, 
and which is so apt to corrupt both the minds and morals of the young. 
"A library is the indispensable supplement to the systematic mental 
instruction given in the class-room. If, for instance, care be taken and 
opportunities sought during the lessons in geography, history, or in any of 
the departments of science, to introduce some little book from the library, 
and to read a few interesting paragraphs illustrating the lesson, a brief 



LICENSE — LOVE 191 

notice and commendation of the book at the close of the exercise, with a 
few hints as to how best to read it, will utilize many a valuable work that 

might otherwise remain untouched upon the shelves A teacher has 

failed in one of the most important of all his functions, if, being in posses- 
sion of a good school library, he has not fixed, in at least some of his 
pupils, the habit and love of seK-culture, by leading them to become 
habitual readers". 

LICENSE, Teacher's, a legal permission to give instruction, gener- 
ally in a public school. This license is usually conferred after examination, 
and attested by a certificate, either temporary or permanent, which is 
evidence to employing school boards that the holder is a qualified teacher, 
sometimes called a certificated teacher. The object of such a hcense to 
teach is to protect the interests of the community against the evils arising 
from the employment of incompetent persons by those who might not be 
able to test the qualifications of applicants, or who might, from favoritism 
or corrupt motives, be willing to employ as teachers persons not possessing 
the requisite qualifications. In the United States, the requirement that 
all teachers should be duly examined and licensed previous to appointment 
is almost universal. The practice in regard to the mode of examination, 
and the forms and grades of the certificate, varies considerably in the 
different states, for information in regard to which, see the titles of the 
states, respectively. In all an unqualified attestation of moral character 
is required, in addition to literary and professional qualifications. (See 
Walsh, The Lawyer in the School-Room, N. T,, 1871, s. v. 27^6 Law 
as to the Teachers Morality.) 

LOVE, on the part of pupils for their teacher, is one of the most 
essential elements of his success, just as antipathy constitutes an unsur- 
mouutable obstacle to the exertion of any important educational 
^'^^^'"^^"^^•influence. The first thing, therefore, which the educator should 
strive to do is to win the affection of his pupils; if that is accomplished, 
every thing else will be done without difficulty. It is of little use to address 
merely the intellect of children. Their curiosity, it is true, can be excited, 
their attention aroused, and the faculties of their minds, to a certain 
extent, be developed and sharpened; but the real elements of character are 
behind all this; and these cannot be affected in any important degree by 
mere intellectual training. The heart — the sensibihties and the will — 
must be reached; and the key to success in this, the greatest ofiice of the 
educator, is love. When love for the teacher reigns in the bosom of his 
pupil, there is entire confidence in him, a desire to obey him, to please 
him, to listen to his precepts, to imitate his example, both in words and 
in acts; indeed, by an inexplicable psychologic law, the pupil seems to be 
bound to the teacher by a kind of magnetic chain, and is subject in every 
thing to his will. Fear, on the other hand, repels, and thus 

±ear. prevents the operation of that influence without which educa- 
tional processes are, more or less, nugatory. The fear to do wrong, and of 
the punishment which is to foUow it, is not, however, inconsistent with a 
love of the teacher. (See Fear.) The latter must make himself, and the 
authority which he wields, respected; or he will incur the contempt of his 
pupils; and this is, of course, antagonistic to love. Children naturally 
vecognize authority, however much they may strive to evade or defy it; 



198 LYCEUM — MANNERS 

and its just and rightful exercise does not interfere with their warmest 
affections toward parents and teachers. Hence, love is not to be inspired 
by making improper concessions to children, for these they 
How to construe into weakness, which they despise. Minute directions 
^lovT^ may be given for the winning of the pupil's affections, but 
these would be either unnecessary or futile. Love on the part 
of the teacher can alone produce love in the hearts of the pupils. He 
cannot put on a semblance of affectionate regard for his pupils; he must 
feel it. Children have naturally deep intuitions into character, and detect 
hypocrisy almost instantly; hence they at once discern whether there is 
any real affection in the mind of the teacher toward themselves, or only a 
mere pretense. Love will show itself in his appearance, his words, his 
manners; every tone of his voice will indicate it, if it exist, and the 
pleasant smile beaming habitually from his countenance wall, while making 
his own labors pleasant and easy, make light the hardest tasks of his 
pupils, by exciting their ambition and determination to accomplish it. 
The teacher should, however, never forget the relation existing between 
him and his pujDils. " Some teachers", says Hart {In the School-Boom, 
Phila., 1868), " in avoiding a hard, repulsive manner, run to the opposite 
extreme, and lose the respect of their scholars by undue familiarity. 
Children do not expect you to become their playmate and fellow, before 
giving you their love and confidence. Their native tendency is to look 
up. They yearn to repose upon one superior to themselves". 

The ability to infuse a love of study into the minds of his pupils is the 
characteristic of a thoroughly successful teacher. I'his is the basis of 
diligence, which is but another name for love. "There is no higher 
hygienic law", says Baldwin [Sdiool Management), "than to love with our 
whole soul, and to work with all our might". (See Diligence.) 

LYCEUM (Gr.A/'KT/oi', named after the neighboring temple of Apollo, 
IvKELoq, a surname which is differently explained by Greek etymologists), 
a gymnasium or public palestra with covered walks, in the eastern suburb 
of Athens, where Aristotle and the philosophers of his school taught. In 
England and in the United States, the word is not apphed to any class of 
schools, but is sometimes given to literary associations. 

MANNERS, the genuine or simulated manifestations of disposition 
towards each other, which occur in the intercourse of human beings. The 
ordinary use of the word manners restricts it to those personal 
Definition. ^^^ visible peculiarities of deportment which characterize the 
intercourse mentioned. I'he agents commonly employed for this purpose 
are the eye, the voice, language, and gestures. When persons are brought 
together without previous knowledge of each other, or with no common 
ground of taste or experience between them, custom has prescribed a 
conventional code of formal manners, characterized as etiquette, which 

. serves to relieve the awkwardness of the situation. That this, 

Ji,tiquette. j^Q-^^gygj.^ jg temporary in character, and not intended to survive 
its original uses, is evident from the fact, that after it has, in great measure, 
been laid aside, any attempt to revive it, as the exclusive medium of kindly 
expression, is regarded as a just cause for resentment. The fugitive character 
uf mere etiquette can never constitute it an equivalent for that abiding 



MARKING 199 

kindliness of disposition which finds expression in genuine politeness. 
Manners, therefore, are more decidedly moral in their nature than a super- 
ficial observation Avould lead us to suspect; hence the usual association of 
"morals and manners". The basis of agreeable manners is that 
Basis, humanity, or feeling of brotherhood, which, in a greater or less 
degree, pervades the human race, and which every century, by its multi- 
plied means of communication, is tending to extend and strengthen. It 
is, therefore, essentially Christian; and pleasant manners may be regarded, 
not as an accomplishment merely, but as one of the legitimate ends of a 
thorough education. In social intercourse, agreeable manners are far more 
powerful than intellectual accomplishments; while the displeasure produced 
by rude manners often neutralizes moral worth, and renders mental acqui- 
sitions, however great, comparatively useless. Momentous issues — even 
the destiny of a lifetime — may hang upon the apparently unimportant 
question of manners. To educate thoroughly, therefore, and neglect the 
means by which that education is to be made effective, is self-evident folly. 
Beyond the ordinary rules of etiquette, no set rules can be given for the 
production of good manners; since, in addition to the moral basis above 
referred to, they are largely dependent upon temperament; but, no precept 
is half so powerful in the furtherance of this end, as the daily 
j-a'^^lf example of the teacher, the parents, or other persons with whom 
e ample. ^^^ ^^^^^^ .^ brought into daily contact. The indirect though 
constant insistence upon the claims of every individual to_ respect and 
kindly attention, which results in a practical recognition of this by the pu- 
pil, together with the daily example referred to, constitute, perhaps, the 
most effective method for the grafting of agreeable manners on the conduct 
of the pupil. (See Moral Education.) 

MARKING, as a means of briefly and definitely stating or register- 
ing the character of the recitations or examinations of pupils, is one 
of the most important of the teacher's instrumentalities, if 
Object, justly and judiciously employed. Although the pupil is not to 
receive the impression that he is to study merely to obtain good marks, 
but for the benefits to be derived from the study itself; yet, in the imma- 
ture development of motives in the child's mind, secondary motives or 
special incentives are usually indispensable, in order to stimulate to exer- 
tion or arouse ambition. These secondary incentives are to be used by 
the teacher with great care, avoiding excess and watching their influence 
upon the pupil's mind, for different dispositions are affected by them in 
very different ways. 

Marking, in the hands of a judicious teacher, is a great help, and when 

kept within due limits, is as salutary to the pupil as it is useful to the 

teacher. Still it should never be regarded as other than an 

Special expedient, and as subordinate to the creation of the true mo- 

vaiue. ^.^^^^^ j^^ special value is in the definiteness with which it 

records (1) the character and value of the pupil's work, (2) his standmg as 

compared with other pupils, and (3) the approval or disapproval of the 

teacher. This very definiteness, however, may be the means of great 

injury, if it is not applied with strict justice. When its appli- 

Howtohe (jation is based on correct principles or criteria known to both 

appiiea. ^^^^^^^^ ^^^ pupils, and these principles are strictly adhered to, 



200 MATHEMATICS 

without the least partiality, the marking system is divested of most of the 
objections which have been urged against it; because, while it presents a 
definite recognition and reward of merit and success, it does not absolutely 
discourage the less deserving and talented. 

An absolute standard of excellence or proficiency is, on the whole, to 
be preferred to a varying one; since while the latter, recognizing the 
diversities of talent among the pupils, and being based on the 
btanaara. jj^qj.q\ consideration of diligence and effort, is more just in itself 
as a criterion of merit, it nevertheless can by no means give as good satis- 
faction to the jnipils as the former, which recognizes only the actual 
achievement of the pupil, without regard to diversities in intellectual 
endowment. The latter cannot be considered by the pupils; nor is it safe 
to treat one class of pupils as if they were incapacitated to perform the 
same tasks as their school-mates of the same grade or class, since that, in 
itself, would be a degradation and a discourag-ement. It is better to let 
them learn this fact by experience in competing with the more talented 
for the attainment of a common standard. 

The teacher is not to degenerate into a mere ''marking machine" in 

the use of this system. While employing it for the purpose of justly 

recording the success or failure, merit or demerit, of his pupils, 

Caution he is to encourage, to aid by explanation, sometimes specially 

teacher directed to the inferior minds, and thus strive to equalize the 

difficulties to be mastered. Before all things he must study his 

pupils, and be guided by their respective traits of character. To this the 

marking should be subsidiary. 

The scale most frequently adopted for marking is that of percentage, 
100 indicating the highest degree of merit or excellence; and perhaps this 
is the most convenient for the purpose. — See Baldwin, Art of School 
Management (N. Y., 1881). 

MATHEMATICS. —The terra mathematics is the Latin word 
mathemntic.i I, or the Greek word jua^T^^uarmd, anglicized. The Greek word 
was derived from jiavddvu, to learn; whence fidd-7]Gic, learn- 
Vejim ion. ^^^^^ Both the Greeks and the Romans used the word matlie- 
•matica as we do the Avord mathematics. The use of the plural form in- 
dicates that this department of human knowledge was formerly considered 
not as a single branch, but as a group of several branches, much as we use 
the phrase the mathematical sciences. This group of sciences is subdivided 
. into pure mathematics said mixed, ov applied, mithemaiics. In 
ficatiln. *^^^ article we are concerned mainly with the former. — The 
branches of pure mathematics are arithmeti".^ a'gebra, the cal- 
culus, and geometry. In this classification, the calculus is made to include 
the infinitesimal calculus, the calculus of finite differences, and the calcu- 
lus of variations; while geometry includes the common or special geom- 
etry, general {analytic) geometry, descriptive geometry, trigonometry^ 
conic sections, and the new science of quaternions. 

No attempt to give a philosophical definition of the department of 

knowledge embraced under the term mtt'/ematics, has as yet been so success- 

Whal the ^^^ ^s to be generally accepted. The statement that " mathe- 

terni matics is the science of quantity" is often flippantly repeated as 
embraces, a definition, but it can scarcely serve for that purpose. Comte 



MATHEMATICS 201 

defines mathematical science, as the science which has for " its object 
the indirect measurement of magnitudes, and constantly proposes to 
determine certain magnitudes front others, hy means of the precise 
relations existing between themJ'. It is not a little singular that, while this 
great thinker rules geometry out of the realm of pure mathematics, he 
bases his definition of the science exclusively on the geometrical conception. 
That he does so is especially apparent in the discussion from which he de- 
duces the definition. Moreover, it is not clear how the abstract principles 
of the science can be included in this definition. Such propositions as, 
"The product of the multiplicand and the multiplier is equal to the sum 
of the products of the parts of the multiplicand into the multiplier"; 
" The root of the product of several quantities equals the product of their 
like roots"; " The bisector of any angle of a triangle divides the opposite 
side into segments which are proportional to the adjacent sides"; etc., are 
scarcely embraced in Comte's definition without an unjustifiable extension 
of the signification of its terms. We propose the following definition: 
Pure mathematics is a general term applied to several branches of science 
which have for their object the investigation of the properties and relations 
of quantity — comprehending number, and magnitude as the result of ex- 
tension. — and of form. It will be observed that this definition embraces 
that of Comte, inasmuch as the measurement of quantities, or the determi- 
nation of unknown from known quantities, is effected by an investigation of 
their relations; but, on the other hand, we can scarcely say that all investiga- 
tions of the relations of quantities are for the purposes of measurement, or 
of determining unknown quantities from known. 

But the chief purpose of this article is to inquire as to the place which 

mathematical studies should occupy in our courses of elementary instruction. 

. In such an inquiry, the leading considerations are, (I) For what 

education W^V^^^ should these studies be pursued in such courses? 

(II) To what extent should they be pursued? and (III) What 

general principles should govern our methods of teaching ? 

I. Mathematical studies should be pursued in elementary schools pri- 
marily as a means of mental discipline. Notwithstanding all that Sir Will- 
iam Hamilton has said, and the formidable array of names which 
MscivHne ^^ adduces in sui3port of his views, it may still be claimed that 
there is no single line of study pursued in schools, which develops 
the mind in so many ways, and is so well adapted to every stage of mental 
growth, as mathematical studies. It has been asserted, and quite generally 
conceded, that the power of observation is not developed by 
vat^n ^i^athematical studies; while the truth is, that, from the most 
elementary mathematical notion which arises in the mind of a 
child to the farthest verge to which mathematical investigation has been 
pushed and applied, this power is in constant exercise. By observation, as 
here used, can only be meant the fixing of the attention upon objects (phys- 
ical or mental) so as to note distinctive peculiarities — to recognize resem- 
blances, differences, and other relations. Now, the first mental act of the 
child recognizing the distinction between one and more than one, between 
07ie and two, two and three, etc., is exactly this. So, again, the first geomet- 
rical notions are as pure an exercise of this power as can be given. To 
know a straight Hue, to distinguish it from a curve; to recognize a triangle 



202 MATHEMATICS 

and distinguish the several forms — what are these, and all perceptions of 
form, but a series of observations ? Nor is it alone in securing these fun- 
damental conceptions of number and form that observation plays so im- 
portant a part. The very genius of the common geometry as a method of 
reasoning — a system of investigation — is, that it is but a series of obser- 
vations. The figure being before the eye in actual representation, or before 
the mind in conception, is so closely scrutinized, that all its distinctive 
features are perceived; auxiliar lines are drawn (the imagination leading 
in this), and a new series of inspections is made; and thus, by means of 
direct, simple observations, the investigation proceeds. So characteristic 
of the common geometry is this method of investigation, that Comte, per- 
haps the ablest of all writers upon the philosophy of mathematics, is disposed 
to class geometry, as to its methods, with the natural sciences, as being 
based upon observation. Moreover, when we consider applied mathematics, 
we need only to notice that the exercise of this faculty is so essential, that 
the basis of all such reasoning, the very materials with which we build, 
have received the name observations. Thus we might proceed to consider 
the whole range of the human faculties, and find for most of them ample 
^ scope for exercise in mathematical studies. Certainly, the memory 
€mo^y. ^^Yi not be found to be neglected. The very first steps in 
number, — counting, the multiplication table, etc., make heavy demands on 
this power; while the higher branches require the memorizing of formulas 

which are simply appalling to the uninitiated. So the imaqi- 
nation '^(-'^^^on, the creative faculty of the mind, has constant exercise in 

all original mathematical investigation, from the solution of the 
simplest problem to the discovery of the most recondite principle; for it is 
not by sure, consecutive steps, as many suppose, that we advance from the 
known to the unknown. The imagination, not the logical faculty, leads in 
this advance. In fact, practical observation is often in advance of logical 
exposition. Thus, in the discovery of truth, the imagination habitually 
presents hypotheses, and observation supplies facts, which it may require 
ages for the tardy reason to connect logically with the known. Of this 
truth, mathematics, as well as all other sciences, affords abundant illus- 
trations. So remarkably true is this, that to-day it is seriously questioned 
by the majority of thinkers, whether the sublimest branch of mathematics 
— the infiniiesimal calculus — -has any thing more than an empirical 
foundation, mathematicians themselves not being agreed as to its logical 
basis. — That the imagination, and not the logical faculty, leads in all 
original investigation, no one who has ever succeeded in producing an 
original demonstration of one of the simpler propositions of geometry, can 

have any doubt. Nor are induction, analogy, the scrutinizing 
'* ^^^'^^ of premises or the search for them, or the balancing of proha- 
analogy, bilities, spheres of mental operation foreign to mathematics. No 

one, indeed, can claim a pre-eminence for mathematical studies 
in all these departments of intellectual culture, "but it may, perhaps, be 
claimed that scarcely any department of science affords discipline to so 
great a number of faculties, and that none presents so complete a gradation 
in its exercise of these faculties, fi'om the first principles of the science to 
the farthest extent of its application, as mathematics. There are, however, 
two respects in which, probably, special pre-eminence may be claimed for 



MATHEMATICS 203 

mathematics as a disciplinary study; namely, training the mind to the 
habit of forming clear and definite conceptions, and, of clothing these con- 
. ceptions in exact and perspicuous language. This pre-eminence 
Conception, q^yi^q^, in part, from the fact that, in this branch of knowledge, 
the terms convey exactly the same meaning to all minds. Thus, there can 
be no difference between the conceptions which different persons have of 
five, siXj a straight line, a circle, a, perpendicular, a. product, a square root; 
or of the statements, that 3 and 5 make8,ihsit the sum of the angles of a 
plane triangle is two right ayigles, etc. The conception in each case is 
definite, and the language may be perfectly clear. That this is not so in 
most other sciences, no one needs to be told. Can we be sure that all have 
the same conception of the metaphysical terms idea, perception, reason ? 
Can any one discriminate infallibly between an adjective and an adverb; 
between downy, hirsute, and pubescent'^ Are the conceptions designed to 
be conveyed by the terms schistose, fissile, slaty, laminar, foliated, 
squamose, so distinct that no two mineralogists will ever interchange them ? 
Is the meaning of a Greek text always unequivocal ? Is it an easy matter 
for any two persons to get exactly the same conception of the causes which 
led to a certain political revolution ; can either be absolutely certain, from 
any language which he can use, that no one will mistake his conception? 
— That the habit of mind which rests satisfied only with clear and definite 
conceptions, and the power of speech which is able to clothe such concep- 
tions in language perfectly unmistakable, are most important attainments, 
need not be argued; and these are exactly the ends which mathematical 
studies, properly pursued, are adapted to secure. In this hasty review, 
nothing has been said directly of these studies as a means of 
Reasoning, (developing the reasoning faculties, since it is generally conceded 
that pure mathematics is practical logic, and that pupils, who do not learn 
to reason by their study of mathematics, fail of the most important end of 
such study. 

Doubtless, the common answer to the question. Why should mathe- 
matical studies be pursued in schools, would he, for their practical value; 
by which is meant, their direct application to the affairs of life, 
Practical ^g -j^ reckoning bills, computing interest, measuring distances, vol- 
umes, areas, etc. It is, indeed, true, that in the every-day affairs 
of life, to the accountant, and to the man of business, a certain amount of 
arithmetical knowledge is essential — that surveying, civil engineering, 
mechanics, navigation, geography, and astronomy, are based on geometry. 
But, let it be observed, that only a special few practice the arts last 
named, and that for the masses embraced in the former specifications, a 
very limited amount of arithmetical knowledge is all that they are required 
to apply. And still further, while it is, indeed, necessary that the business 
man should be able to add, subtract, multiply, divide, and compute inter- 
est, skill in these operations can never form the basis of practical success 
in life, except in the case of mere clerks. Many of the most sagacious 
business men would make wretched work with their ledger columns, and 
they know too well their own deficiencies to risk themselves in any impor- 
tant numerical computations. Indeed, the elements of practical success in 
life are quite other than a specific knowledge of any branch of science 
whatever, however indispensable a certain amount of such knowledge may 



204 ' MATHEMATICS 

be in particular callings. The conclusion, therefore, is that the important 
point is not, how much mathematical knowledge can be crammed into 
the minds of pupils, but by what methods of teaching and study such 
habits of mind can be secured, as will make the pupils most efficient in 
performing the duties of life. 

II. IVhat place should mathematical studies occupy in the course of 
study t AVere we to judge from the practice of most schools, we should 
conclude that mathematical studies ought to occupy from one-third to one- 
half of the pupils time throughout his school life, unless, indeed, a slight 
exception is to be made in favor of other studies for the last two years of 
a college course; that is. that reading, spelling, writing, geography, 
grammar, history, literature, rhetoric, logic, the whole domain of natural 
science, including the physical constitution of the human system, chemistry, 
languages, metaphysics, political economy, — all these, and whatever else 
goes to make up the furniture, and secure the discipline, of a well-cultivated 
mind, are only to receive as great, or at most twice as great, a part of the 
pupil's time, as his mathematical studies. And this is no exaggeration, as 
will be obvious from an inspection of the curriculum of a graded school, 

or college. For the first six or seven years of the ordinary 
Public graded public school course, if we include the oral lessons, in 
course ^"'^^^'' ^^^ form, of the lowest grade, arithmetic forms one of 

the three main studies for the entire course; and, in not a few 
cases, there are two arithmetical exercises, one in mental (oral), and one in 
written arithmetic, or one in arithmetic and another in algebra, each day, 

constituting, in such cases, fully one-half of the school work, 
sc/iooi During the entire course of the high or preparatory school, 

either algebra, higher arithmetic, or geometry constitutes one 
of the studies, except for a part of one year; but this exception is much 
more than made up by the large relative amount of time which the 
pupil's mathematical studies usually occupy, and by the fact that not 
unfrequently some two of these studies are pursued at the same time. In 

the college course, one of the three regular studies for the first 
course *^^*^ years is, almost invariably, mathematics. So far, reference 

has been had exclusively to pure matheiiiatics , including only 
arithmetic, algebra, and perhaps a little of general (analytical) geometry 
and the calculus. Whatever of applied mathematics, including surveying, 
mechanics, astronomy, etc., is to be studied, must find additional time in 
the course. The question then arises, can the legitimate purposes for 
which mathematical studies should be pursued, be secured in any less time ? 
In order to answer this, let us observe the exact proportion of time usually 

given to the pure mathematics in a course of training extend- 

IJme given \j^g through the ordinary college course. Arithmetic has from 

matics ' o^^<^"half to one-third of the pupil's time in the elementary 

schools. In the high-school or academic course, to obtain any 
creditable knowledge of algebra, geometry, and plane trigonometry, and to 
review the arithmetic, at least one-third of the time is consumed. Passing 
into the college with this knowledge of mathematics, the student findis 
one-third of the time, for the first two years, scarcely adequate to secure a 
respectable knowledge of higher algebra, geometry, and trigonometry, the 
element? of the general geometry, and the infinitesimal calculus; and 



MATHEMATICS 205 

whatever of applied mathematics is learned, as of surveying, mathematical 
drawing, mechanics, astronomy, etc., must find a place in the other two 
years of the college course. >s'ow, all this is simply inevitable, unless relief 
can be found in the course prior to entrance upon college work. If, how- 
ever, the inordinate demands of arithmetic can be so abridged (see 
Arithmetic), that the grammar school course shall include, at least, 
eighteen months' study introductory to algebra and geometry, the high 
school can save this time for other studies, and also secure such thorough- 
ness in preparation, that the student's course in college will be far more 
rapid and satisfactory than at present. With the quality of preparation 
now secured, it should be borne in mind, that the student comes to college 
having, it is true, been over the requisite amount, but with so little of the 
real strength and knowledge which that course should impart, that, if he 
does justice to his mathematical studies for the first two years, nearer one- 
half than one-third of his time is consumed upon them. By rigidly con- 
fining the study of elementary arithmetic to its proper domain, giving a 
year in the grammar school to an introduction to algebra, and half a year 
to the definitions and facts of plane geometry, the pupil may come to the 
high school so thoroughly prepared in the elements of the three great 
mathematical studies, — arithmetic, algebra, and geometry, that between 
two and three years in the high school will be amply sufficient to secure 
such further proficiency in these branches as is consistent with the course 
here marked out. Moreover, if the pupil's school life closes W'ith the 
grammar school, the course thus secured will be of far more value to him 
in after life, both for practical uses and as a discipline, than the ordinary 
one. (Sek Arithmetic, Algebra, and Geometry.) 

In the above, it will be observed, that the general geometry and the 
infinitesimal calculus are included in the college course. The elements of 
the former are usually required, although it is quite common 
calc^us ^^^^ ^^ good reason) to make the latter elective. By omitting 
the calculus, the graduate leaves college without ever having 
looked into one of the sublimest departments of human knowledge, or 
having even the remotest idea of the language and methods of the mechan- 
ics and astronomy of the day, or being able to read an advanced treatise 
upon any scientific subject as treated by the modern matheniatician. Nor 
can the beauty and power of the general geometry be appreciated without 
a knowledge of the calculus. Thus the pupil who is allowed, at his option, 
to leave this out of his course, leaves college a hundred years behind his 
time, in one of the leading departments of human knowledge. 

III. Wliat general principles should govern our methods of teach- 
ing mathematics ? — This topic has been quite fully treated in the separate 
articles Arithmetic, Algebra, and Geometry, to which reference is made. 
It is prop:-r to add here, that, from first to last, the methods 
Methods. gjjQ^ij l^e snch as will give absolutely clear perceptions and 
conceptions, and secure facility, accuracy, and elegance in expression. 
These ends are of vastly more practical importance tlian the mere ability 
"to get the answer" of special problems. The notion which prevails 
among some teachers, that if the pupil learns the process, and becomes 
expert in it, he has obtained every thing that is essential, and that, what- 
ever of the rationale may be desirable wiU be, in some way, induced by 



206 MATRICULATE — MEMORY 

this mechanical process, is an exceedingly vicious one. In the first place, 
it is far more important that the pupil should be able to comprehend the 
logic, and to express his ideas in intelligible language than 
Culture, mergiy to solve any number ofproblems, since the former ability 
he will have occasion to use every day of his life, while he may never need 
the latter at all. But we are not driven to the alternative of securing 
culture at the expense of mechanical skill; the very best means to acquire 
expertness in mathematical manipulations is that which secures the best 
results in culture. No greater intellectual monstrosity probably ever pre- 
sents itself than he who is usually known as a mathematical genius; that 
is, one who has a wonderful ability to do what nobody else can do, or cares 
to do — to solve knotty and often senseless mathematical problems. On 
the contrary, the object of mathematical study should be to develop men 
with cultured minds, not to make them mere computing machines. 

MATRICULATE (Lat. matricala, a public roll or register), to admit 
to membership in a college or university, by enrollment. 

MEMOmZINGr, committing to memory, or, as it is sometimes 
called, learning by heart, generally implies repetition or rote-learning; 
though it need not be without an understanding of what is memorized. 
The law of repetition has an important application in many processes of 
instruction that are addressed, wholly or in part, to the memory. The 
mere memorizing of Avords and sentences, in order to produce a show of 
knowledge is a great abuse. Children may, however, be required to com- 
mit to memory some statements which they do not perfectly understand, 
such complete understanding requiring a more mature degree of intellect- 
ual development. '' No doubt", says Calderwood {On Teaching, Edin., 
1874), "all children must commit to memory a good many things they do 
not rightly understand. Such storing of the memory belongs less or more 
to all study". I'his is the view also of Tliring [Education and School, 
London, 1864): "There should be a clear perception how far it is wise to 
explain, and to proceed on the principle of making a boy thoroughly 
understand his lessons, and how far they should be looked on as a mere 
collecting of material and a matter of memory. It must be borne in mind 
that, with the young, memory is strong, and logical perception weak. All 
teaching should start on this undoubted fact. It sounds very fascinating 
to talk about understanding every thing, learning every thing thoroughly, 
and all those broad phrases, which plump down on a difficulty, and hide 
it. Put in practice, they are about on a par with exhorting a boy to 
mind he does not go into the water until he can swim." The method 
referred to in this citation is the other extreme from mechanical word 
memorizing, and while not as injurious, or as likely to be adopted, is 
equally unphilosophical. 'J'he extent to which memorizing is to be carried, 
and the branches of instruction to which it is to be applied, constitute 
important subjects for the exercise of the teacher's judgment and intelli- 
gence. (See Concert Teaching, Memory, and Rote-Teacpiing.) 

MEMORY is often represented as a distinct faculty of the mind ; but 

this may do harm in education. The mind is one, and has no separate 

faculties distinct from each other, the term faculty being used 

reaarded ^^^^^Y ^^^ ^^^^ ^^^^ ^^ convenience. It is important to turn 

away from this mode of conception, and to look at the phe- 



MEMORY 207 

nomena as they arise in the mind. An object and a mind come into 
connection. What is the result? An impression is produced on the 
mind, or more correctly the mind forms an impression of the object. 
What becomes of this impression? A new object presents itself, and then 
the impression disappears before the new impression which the mind forms 
of the new object. Has the former impression disappeared altogether ? 
No. We believe that, in some way or other, it still remains in the mind. 
If a similar object were to come before the mind, it would be conscious 
that it had formed an impression of it before, and the two impressions 
would blend into one. We have here, then, a peculiar power of 
Power of the mind to retain what it has once had; and this power does 
lo retain ^^* ^PP^J merely to perceptions or other intellectual acts, but 
to feelings and desires. A longing for an object has been 
aroused within us. The longing is displaced for a time by some other 
pressing passion. But the longing is still in the mind; and when the 
appropriate causes of excitation occur, the longing will come back, and, it 
may be, blend with the new longing which helps to awaken it, or repel the 
new longing which has aroused it by contrast. This then is the first 
feature of memory. The soul has the power of retaining feelings, voli- 
tions, perceptions, and'thoughts. The question has been raised, can these 
feelings, volitions, and thoughts entirely and absolutely vanish from the 
mind ? A categorical answer cannot, from the nature of the case, be given 
to this question; but, certain facts render it likely that the mind retains 
every thing, and that it is merely the power of resuscitation which is 
defective. Many circumstances which seem to have been entirely for- 
gotten, are, under peculiar conditions, recalled to the memory. It is said 
that often, when persons have been drowning, they have seen, as in a rapid 
vision, their past life in multitudinous details which they had entirely for- 
gotten. People, in diseases of the brain, have remembered languages, 
which they had learned in early days, but which they seemed to have lost 
completely. Facts like these point to the indestructibihty of that which 
has once had a place in the soul. 

But, besides the power of retention, there is the other power of repro- 
duction; and it is to this power that the educator has to direct his at- 
tention. What are the means of strengthening the reproductive 
Forcer of power of the minds of children? We have to look at the con- 
reproduc- ^ji^ions of its exercise; and, in this connection, we must consider 
'^^' the four following principles: (I) It is plain that the impression 
will be reproducible in proportion to the strength and vivacity with which 
it is first made. This strength depends partly on the natural capacity 
of the child, partly on v^hether the stimulus in the object is such as 
to produce a strong impression. The educational inferences from this 
/statement are numerous. Thus it follows that wherever a real object 
'can be presented to a child, it should be used in preference to apy 
picture of it, and that a picture of it is better than a mere verbal descrip- 
tion. Moreover, if more than one sense can be employed, so much the 
better. If any object is to be remembered, the child will remember more 
easily, if he can touch, smell, or taste it, as well as see it. This arises 
partly from the fact that these direct sensations produce strong impressions, 
but partly also from Tvhat we call our second principle of memory. (11) 



208 MEMORY 



n 



Every means should be used to concentrate the attention on the object. 
If we wish to make a child remember an object, the object must be allowed 
to lie before the child's eye or mind for some time. In the perception of 
every object the process is somewhat as follows: the perception or sen- 
sation has first to displace the preceding perception or sensation. It then 
gathers strength and occupies for a time the whole mind. But, soon after, 
another object of perception or of thought presents itself; and the mind 
will occupy itself with this. This new perception will weaken, and finally 
expel, the other. Each perception is connected with two other perceptions 
or mental acts — with the one which it expels and the one by which it is 
expelled. Now, the power of reproducing the mental act depends not 
merely on the strength with which the act is executed at its central moment, 
but also on the strength of the connections which it may form with the 
aiitecedent and subsequent acts; and this strength depends partly on the 
time and attention with which they can be kept together in the mind; for, 
in every mental act, there are subsidiary simultaneous acts which scarcely 
reach the point of consciousness. For instance, when I examine a house, 
there is some slight perception of the intermediate space between me and 
the house, of the objects, such as trees, which may be in that space, and of 
the sky which is overhead. These pass from the one definite perception 
to the other, and in a latent state help to recall the one, when we get the 
other. The strength of the connection is increased, if there be a natural 
connection between the two mental acts, such as that of cause and effect 
means and end, or if there be some points of resemblance between them', 
or some points of contrast. But, in all cases, time must be given to let 
these points of resemblance or contrast flow over, as it were, from the 
one to the other. The danger to which the educator is here exposed, 
IS that of attempting to do too much and, therefore, doing what he does 
too hurriedly. He must be patient. He must try to intensify the 
impression by allowing the various senses to deal with it, and he can 
thus concentrate attention longer on it than he could otherwise do. And 
he must, as far as possible, bring only two objects or two ideas at a 
time before the pupil's mind. These should be held together for some 
time; and they should, if it is possible, be naturally connected. Of course, 
there are occasions in which this is neither possible nor advantageous! 
There are some occasions in which the teacher must pass over a good deal 
of matter in a short time. He does not wish his pupil to remember the 
whole, nor would it be good for the pupil to do so; but these cases should 
be limited to those of necessity. And a warning should be given acrainst the 
danger of indulging too much in reading books which, awakening the in- 
terest strongly and thus disturbing the nervous system, do not demand of 
the reader an accurate recollection. This is specially true of novels. The 
frequent and rapid reading of these works, in which the reader has no stim- 
ulus and no occasion to remember the incidents accurately, fills the mind 
with a great number of vague memories. These memories render indistinct 
what ought to be distinct, for they abstract so much of the valuable power 
that the mind possesses for reproduction; and the habit of readino- with- 
out caring to remember, is apt to transfer itself to the books an'd acts 
which ought to have the closest attention. (Ill) There must be fre- 
quent repetition. An object or thought is reproducible easily, when it 



^lEMORY 209 

has been made to occupy a large space in the mind. The power of repro- 
duction is limited by time, and the mind can only reproduce witliin cer- 
tain limits in this respect. If, therefore, an object is to be reproduced, 
the faded impression must be renewed; and the renewal of the impression 
strengtliens its hold. It is thus that a fact may become indelibly imprinted 
on the memory. The value of the repetition cannot be overestimated, but 
great care must be taken not to make it wearisome. {IV) The power 
of reproduction greatly depends on the state of the health. That there 
is a very close connection between this power and the body, is proved 
most conclusively by the numerous instances collected by Dr. Abercrombie, 
in whicli abnormal states of the brain were accompanied by abnormal 
developments of memory. When, therefore, a child forgets, it must not 
be always attributed to carelessness. A child learns a word on Monday, 
and knows it with perfect accuracy; but when he comes, on Tuesday morn- 
ing, to repsat it, he finds he cannot. In all probability, the impression 
was too weak to last a whole day, and to resist the many and more inter- 
esting ideas which have intervened; but the lesson is not lost. The orig- 
inal impression is there; the teacher patiently and pleasantly renews the 
impression; and the old blends with the new, and strengthens, until repe- 
tition fixes it in the mind forever. But it may be merely a temporary 
suspension of the child's power of reproduction, in consequence of illness; 
and there is no surer sign of latent disease than when a child, generally 
ready and quick, stumbles and forgets. Some physiologists go the length 
of affirming that, owing to the freshness of the nervous system, the exer- 
cise of the memory should be assigned to the morning; while other men- 
tal efforts, such as those of imagination, should be reserved for the evening. 
These four principles lead not only to the power of reproduction, but to 
the power of ready and accurate reproduction. In order that the mem- 
ory may embrace a wide range of subjects, it is essential that the mind 
should devote itself to such a range of subjects. The power of reprodu- 
cing a subject depends upon the frequency and strength with which it has 
come before the mind. It is, therefore, not quite correct to say, that a 
person has a good or a bad memory. Every one has many kinds of mem- 
ory. If he has exercised his mind in words, he will remem- 
Sioecijic i^gj, words; if he has given much attention to numbers, he will 
^' remember numbers; if to any other class of ideas, he wiU re- 
member such ideas. But, however great his practice in numbers may be, 
that practice will not enable him to remember words; and the converse is 
also true. The teacher must carefully exercise the pupil in each group of 
notions, if he expects him to remember them readily and accurately. Per- 
haps, one of the questions which deserve careful consideration 
What in education is what ought to be forgotten. The human mind 
^f^-'^Ue^^ is limited in its range, and cannot reproduce every thing. 
* Ought it to put into its store-house any thing that it cannot 
hope to reproduce? We think that it ought. Where the aim is to pro- 
duce in the pupil a clear idea or notion, many particulars must be ad- 
duced which, studied attentively for a short time, will render the notion 
clear and distinct; but it is not necessary that the mind should retain aU 
these particulars. This is the case, for instance, in geography. In order 
to form a correct notion of a country, many particulars must be carefully 



210 METHODICS — MINEBALOGY 

weighed; but, after the notion has been attained, the pupil will wisely 
drop a great deal of the knowledge which he has temporarily mastered, 
deeming it enough to know where he can get the knowledge when he 
wants it. Again, when the object is to inculcate a great principle of 
action, the same course may be pursued. If, for example, a teacher wishes 
to impress upon his pupils the true idea of toleration, he may choose many 
incidents in history to bring it home to their minds, and may go into the 
minutest details of these incidents in order to awaken interest; but he 
succeeds in his purpose, if he leaves a strong and accurate general im- 
pression, even though the pupil forgets most of the details which have been 
given him. The power of forgetfulness is one that can also be directed, 
as well as the power of reproduction. It is, indeed, true that the greater 
the effort to forget any thing, the more surely is it impressed on the mem- 
ory; but this holds true mainly in those matters in which there is a 
strong personal element; and just as a man who sleeps in a room where a 
clock strikes can make up his mind not to take any notice of the striking 
of the clock in his sleep, so, in the impersonal matters of the intellect, we 
can make up our minds to let such and such facts fall into oblivion. Kant 
distinguished memory as the mechanical, the ingenious, and the judicious. 
. The mechanical is employed when tlie only bond of connection 
to^nwmory ^^' *^^* *^^ ^^^^ things are in the mind at the same time, the 
one immediately succeeding the other. This is what is called 
committing to memory, or learning by heart. Such kind of memory must 
be frequently used in early education. It is important for the teacher to 
note its character. It depends on simultaneity and succession, and any dis- 
turbance of these circumstances disturbs the memory. 
METHODICS. See Didactics. 

MINER ALOGrY. Under the head of mineral substances, or those 
which constitute the mineral kingdom, are included all inorganic bodies; 
that is to say, by strict definition, all substances that are not the products 
of hfe. "While in its severely scientific aspects this subject properly belongs 
to advanced education, as a sequel to other departments of science, yet as 
embracing the study of natural objects, it may, like botany, be pursued as 
. a branch of elementary object instruction. When taught in this 
^ucatim, ^^7' ^^^ primarily as a means of cultivating the observing fac- 
ulties, the same principles should guide it as one applicable to 
that kind of teaching; and especially should the teacher endeavor to lead 
the pupil to discover for himself the qualities of every specimen examined, 
and impart nothing that can be thus discovered. The pupil will then 
search for similar specimens, and be able to write out their characteristics. 
The schedule system, is applicable to this subject as well as to 
system^ botany. (See Botany.) Thus a regular formula should be 
adopted, noting form, siruciure, cleavage, hardness, weight, 
color, luster, etc.; and every term should be carefully explained as an 
addendum to the pupil's observation. A small cabinet of mineralogical 
specimens is an almost indispensable requisite for carrying on this instruc- 
tion. Minerals, regarded merely as the materials of which the earth's 
crust is composed, offer examples of so many physical properties that come 
under the cognizance of the senses, either unaided or aided by the simplest 
experiments, that they afford excellent material for this kind of teaching. 



MISCHIEVOUSNESS 211 

They present these properties in the simplest conditions, uncomplicated, 

as in vegetable or animal materials, by the effects of vitality; and they 

. are superior to artificial objects for objective teaching, because, if 

teaching, ^^g^^^y ^^^^' ^^^J ^^J ^^ ^^^"^^ *^ elucidate aU that can be elu- 
cidated by the former, whilst they become, in addition, founda- 
tion stones upon which a more advanced and scientific study may be satis- 
factorily based. In this manner, they may be used to inculcate, in its most 
elementary form, a scientific method of research. Thus, by means of the 
physical characters of minerals, observation, accurate as far as our unaided 
senses can make it, and exactness of thought, and consequently of speech, 
may be cultivated in regard to exiei^nal form, internal structure, color, 
diaphaneity, luster, hardness, tenacity , fracture, ^io.. Observations, element- 
ary it is true, but still of a fundamental character, regarding spec//?c^ra?;%, 
solubility, amd fusibility, may be induced by simple experiments with the 
balance, the test-tube, and the blowpipe. Such knowledge, acquired from 
the common minerals around us, wiU undoubtedly be a valuable stepping- 
stone to further acquisitions. At a later stage, if practicable, instruction 
in the use of the blowpipe might be made to yield a further insight iato 
simple chemical phenomena, and, if carried far enough, might be made an 
excellent starting-point for systematic scientific investigation by analysis. 

In connection with mineralogy, attention should be given to lithology, 
or the science of mineral aggregates, or rocks. This subject presents many 
T 7^ , points of interest both from a scientific and an educational point 
Littio.ogy. ^£ view; and in its connections, on the one hand, with geology, 
and, on the other, with mineralogy, affords the materials for practical 
study as well as useful mental culture, thus constituting an element of both 
technical and liberal education. The works necessary to the general reader 
for reference on topics of mineralogy and lithology are few; and those only 
are here named that are perfectly accessible. See Cyclopoedia of Education. 

MISCHIEVOUSNESS, as applied to the disposition of a child, or 
school pupil, is the occasional transgression of an established rule in a play- 
ful spirit, but without a malicious intention. This disposition is usually 
the result of the union of humor, or love of fun, with sound bodily health. 
The exuberance of spirits thus produced generally finds vent in actions 
which are denominated mischievous. This spirit is so widely different 
from the willful breaking of rules with an evil intent, that the easy sup- 
pression of a continued exhibition of it rests entirely with the teacher; the 
good nature with which the mischievous act is accompanied generally caus- 
ing the perpetrator to desist on a slight warning. To bring the mis- 
chievous spirit under speedy control, two quahties only are necessary in 
the teacher: — quick discernment of its real nature, and tact in correcting 
it. The want of these sometimes leads to needless irritation on both sides, 
and may end disastrously to the teacher's influence, and, through that, to 
the discipline of the school. If, on the other hand, the good humor of the 
transgressor is met by a similar feeling on the part of the teacher, the task 
of correction is usually easy, and causes no offense; whUe, in the end, it 
secures a respectful obedience on the part of the pupil. If, however, the 
mischievous disposition is not corrected in this way, it may lead to vicious 
habits, which will tend to undermine, or permanently deprave the moral 
character. 



212 MODEL SCHOOLS — MODERN LANGUAGES WL 

MODEL SCHOOLS, a term usually applied to schools of practice 
annexed to normal schools, or teachers' seminaries. 

MODERN LANGUAGES, in the literal and widest sense of the 

term, are the languages now in use, in contradistinction to those which 

were formerly spoken, but are now extinct. Taken in this sense, the term 

embraces the mother-tongue, in which the home education of the 

tona e^^^^*^ is conducted, the national or ruling language of the country , 

which is the medium of instruction in the schools, and the living 

languages of foreign nations. It is the general tendency of the age, to 

make a thorough knowledge of the national language the center and the 

chief aim of all school instruction; though it has been demanded, from an 

educational point of view, that wherever the mother-tongue of a large 

portion of the inhabitants of a country is different from that of the national 

language, its claims should not be ignored. The admission of modern 

. foreign languages into a regular course of instruction is of 

lanquaqes comparatively recent date, and the credit of having first obtained 

' this recognition belongs to the French language. Until very 

recently, French has enjoyed, in this respect, an acknowledged superiority 

over any other language of the globe; and it is but recently that English 

and German have to any considerable extent begun to compete with it. 

At present, French, English, and German are studied all over the world, as 

the chief representatives of modern culture. The Italian language is 

learned by many of the students of fine arts and of music in preference to 

any of the three principal modern languages; but more in courses of 

private instruction than in schools. 

Since modern languages have come to be studied on a much more 
extended scale than the classical, a great variety of methods have been 
proposed. The authors of some of these methods are by no 
Methods, -^^^lw^ distinguished for modesty, and do not hesitate to declare 
all former modes of instruction absolutely useless, as having been wholly 
superseded by their own. In most cases, they have wholly forgotten that 
the method of teaching and learning a modern language must, to a very 
great extent, be dependent upon the purpose for which it is learned. If 
the student chiefly aims to acquire the ability to express his thoughts in 
the language of another person belonging to a foreign nation, the methods 
which make conversation the basis of instruction will justly commend 
themselves to the attention of the instructor. AVhen a foreign language 
is learned as a means of understanding the literature of a particular 
nation, an early knowledge of the inflectional part of the language, of all 
its peculiarities in etymology and syntax, and of its vocabulary, will be 
felt as an urgent want; and grammar lessons connected with translating 
exercises, will form the chief means of instruction. In the combination of 
grammar and translation, every possible method has been tried: the strictly 
synthetical, which starts from the parts of speech, and teaches them singly, 
before proceeding to a regular system of translations; the strictly analytical, 
which begins with the analysis of foreign sentences, and from them, by 
degrees, derives the knowledge of grammatical forms; and the synthetico- 
analytical, or analytico-synthetical, which, from the first, endeavors to 
combine instruction in the grammatical structure with practice in using 
the foreign language. Of these, the foi^raer may be said to have been 



MONITOBiAL SYSTEM — MORAL EDUCATION 213 

almost entirely abandoned, the latter being the one generally preferred 
in schools. In regard to the arrangement of the grammatical rules, an 
infinite variety may be observed in the numerous grammars of modern 
languages. See the article on Modern Languages in the Gyclopcedia. of 
Education. 

MONITORIAL SYSTEM, sometimes called the Madras system, 
because it was introduced into England from Madras, by Andrew Bell; 
also the Lancasterian system, after one of its most enthusiastic advocates, 
Joseph Lancaster. It is, moreover, often designated the system of tnutual 
instruction, because conducted on the principle of requiring the pupils of 
a school to teach each other. The name monitorial i7istr notion is derived 
from the circumstance that the pupil teachers employed to carry on the 
system were called monitors. — For a full account of this system see Cy- 
clopo'.dia of Education. 

MORAL EDUCATION has for its sphere of operation the culture 
of those principles which influence or control the voluntary action of 

human beings. The elements of self-control exist, in a greater 
^^priei e. ^j. |ggg degree, in every mind, as a part of its original constitu- 
tion. They are distinct from its intellectual faculties, and need a special 
education, which is far more important than intellectual education, be- 

cause it contributes in a much higher degree to the good both 
Duty. q£ ^jjg individual and of society. The subject of moral educa- 
tion is duty, and its office is both speculative and active; that is (1) 
to implant correct principles of rectitude in the pupil's mind — to teach 
what duty is, and (2) to cultivate a desire to do what is right for its own 
sake — to respect duty, or moral obligation; in other words, to feel a sense 
of right — to listen to the voice of conscience (q- v.); to which may be 
added, as an important additional object, to implant in the youthful mind 
such motives as will aid the moral sense, and enable it to triumph over the 

natural propensities and desires, when the latter are in conflict 
emvlaued ^^^^ ^** '^^^ means employed in moral education are the 
* following: (1) precepts, addressed both to the understanding and 
to the conscience, the object being to enlighten the latter, which of itself 
does not recognize specific right and wrong ; (2) example, appealing to 
imitation as well as to conscience, and enforced by the love and respect 
felt by the child toward its educator, leading the former to feel that 
whatever is done by the latter is right, and hence should be imitated (see 
Example); (3) habit, inducing, by means of repetition, an inclination to 
act in the same way under the same circumstances (see Habit) ; (4) exer- 
cise, for the purpose both of strengthening the moral feelings brought into 
. play, and of forming habits. Exercise, in moral education, 
M^xercise. jsj^g^ ^g important as in physical or intellectual education; 
indeed, there can be no training or culture without it; and, in carrying 
this on, the teacher must avail himself of every possible circumstance that 
arises in connection with his intercourse with the pupUs, or their inter- 
course with each other, to give occasion for this exercise, and thus form a 
basis for the desired culture of the moral faculties. This culture or train- 

ing must have a twofold object: (1) to cultivate virtues, and 
ohieci ("^ ^^ correct vices. Among the former, as especially necessary, 

may be enumerated truthfulness, honesty, justice, candor and 



2U MORALIZING 

modesty, kindness or benevolence, diligence, obedience to proper authority, 
gratitude, fidelity to every promise or trust, and patriotism; and among 
the latter, the opposites of these, as lying and deceit, a disposition to steal, 
cruelty to animals, unkindness and injustice to playmates, violence and 
combativeness, ill temper, anger and irritability, obstinacy, laziness, irreso- 
lution, leading to procrastination, excessive self-esteem, leading to arrogance 
and self-conceit, etc. These are specific qualities of character which need 
a particular recognition and treatment on the part of the educator; but 
when the moral sense has been thoroughly developed, the Christian moral 
principle, to do unto others as we would that they should do unto us, will 
comprehend, in approbation or condemnation, every class of actions, and 
Moral ^^^^ *^^ means of a just discrimination as to what is virtuous 
discipline ^^^ ^^^^^* ^^ vicious. But the conscience is not developed in 
* children; and very often, not even in adults. Hence, the need 
of moral discij)line, in order to afford to the educator the means of bring- 
ing to bear upon his pupils external restraint, as preliminary to self- 
restraint; for it must be borne in mind that any government that does 
not contemplate the cultivation of the elements of self-control can 
scarcely be considered as forming a part of moral education. The three 
elements of sensibility usually appealed to in connection with moral dis- 
cipline or restraint, are fear (q. v.), hope (q. v.), and love (q. v.). (See also 
Authority.) The conscience being very imperfectly developed in child- 
^econdarxi ^^°^' secondary motives, such as the love of approbation, the 
''motives. ^^^P? ^^ reward, the desire to excel, may properly be appealed 

to, m order to promote well-doing on the part of the pupil, 
and thus lead to the formation of good habits. Caution should be exer- 
cised, however, in employing such incentives;. and the educator should 
always keep in view the just hmits of their use, the injurious consequences 
of depending too exclusively upon them, and the importance of so employ- 
ing them that they may lead on to the primary motive — the desire to do 
right for its own sake. (See Emulation.) The practical application of 
the system here briefly outlined, is attended with very great difficulty, and 
requires peculiar intelligence and skill on the part of the educator; and not 
alone this, but moral culture, involving self-control, patience, and a delicate 
appreciation of moral distinctions, as well as a full sympathy with the 
general peculiarities and wants of childhood. To this may be added, with 
emphasis, the ability to discern the pecuharities of individual character, as 
dependent on both mental and physical constitution; for the processes of 
moral education cannot, hke many of those employed in intellectual train- 
ing, be applied to children in large masses. Suitable modifications must 
be made in the application of general principles and rules, or much injury 
may be done. (See Discernment of Character, and Moralizing.) 

MORALIZING, the formal inculcation of moral truth by means of 

precept, or of stories related for the sake of the moral, with the view of 

Its use "^fl^^^ci"g conduct. This practice, common in the home circle 

and in the school, is the result of a consciousness on the part of 
the parent or teacher of a duty unperformed, the discharge of which is 
attempted in this perfunctory way. It is hardly necessary to say that it 
almost always fails; since it is either an attempt to reason with the young 
— a process for which their minds are not yet sufficiently mature — or an 



MUSIC — NEWSPAPERS 215 

effort to impose mechanically on their minds generalizations which can 
only be reached naturally after the observation of many individual in- 
stances. In either case, the abstract nature of the appeal is so far beyond 
their powers, that the attention which is given, if indeed it is given, is only 
the aiiiiable toleration of a discourse which arouses no interest. Of course, 
moral lessons received in such a spirit accompHsh no useful purpose, if 
indeed they are not positively hurtful; since they tend to produce disgust 
for an important branch of education, which in maturer years, would be 
interesting. The conceptions existing in the minds of children and youth 
being in large measure concrete, the true method of approaching their 
intelligence is through concrete images. In intellectual training, this is 
usually done, and is always the most successful method. In one of the 

methods of moral training above referred to — that of moral 
^o)''i£s stories — this is attempted, and doubtless, it is supposed, with 

success; but it is safe to say that the interest aroused is not ex- 
tended to the moral deductions drawn from the acts of the persons intro- 
duced, but ends with the acts or actors themselves. Thus the fables of 
^sop are interesting to the young only as long as the men and animals 
are, so to speak, in motion. When the moral is reached — which is not till 
after the narrative has been brought to a climax, and the actors have been 
dismissed — their interest is at an ebb; and not till many years later is 
that moral brought home to them by the manifold experiences of life. This, 
therefore, is the peculiar value, and the only proper use, of the fables of 
JEsop, namely, that they present in a striking way the truth desired to be 
impressed on the mind, not with the design of making it immediately in- 
fluential, but with an effort which, for the moment, is apparently 
without result — the feeling which attends the planting of a seed, i. e., the 
certainty of future development. The mind of youth, in fact, is not given 

to that sober, contemplative process which we call morahzing. 
method ^^^ natural disposition is one of gaiety, ceaseless activity, and 

even boisterousness. The exuberance of spirits natural to this 
period of life, therefore, makes the child indisposed to give patient attention 
to any purely speculative process of thought. That this is a wise provision 
of nature for the development of the physical powers, has long been 
recognized by observant educators; and any attempt to curb this spirit, 
with the view of inculcating moral truth, only inverts the natural order of 
development, and, in healthy children is apt to result disastrously. The 
only method of moral training effective with youth is that which discards 
formal precepts, and by restraint of actual vice, or practice of the desired 
virtue, engrafts it insensibly on the daily conduct. The habit of right act- 
ing is thus unconsciously acquired, but not till a much later period is the 
mind disposed to survey critically this action, and pass judgment upon its 
propriety. The maturity of the mind is an indication of the proper season 
for moralizing. 

MUSIC. See Singing. 

MUTUAL SYSTEM. See Monitorial System. 

NEW EDUCATION. See Education. 

NEWSPAPERS. The objection is frequently made to the character 
of the instruction ordinarily imparted at school, that it has little relation 



216 NEWSPAPERS 

to the concerns of daily life. This want of relation sprung originally from 
the fact that the literary class, in earlier times, was a class apart, having 

only slight connection with the masses who, possessing few po- 
School and y^^Iqq^ rights, were unworthy of consideration. The instruction 
(^^y ¥ • gjygj^^ therefore, was purposely of a kind to emphasize the ex- 
clusiveness of the educated class. Under the changed political conditions 
of our day, however, the tendency has steadily been to equalize the two 
classes in intelligence — to lift up the masses to the level of the educated, 
on the one hand, and, on the other, to bring the studies of the school and 
college more into accordance with the daily life of the majority. Traces of 
the original exclusiveness still remain, however, in the unpractical char- 
acter of much of the instruction, imparted in school. Almost every 
youth, on entering upon the business of life, becomes conscious of this 
with chagrin. The arithmetic that he studied, for instance, seems to have 
little application to the concerns of daily life ; the book-keeping which he 
mastered with so much difficulty, seems now, at this later date, to have 
been filled with theoretical cases which have no parallels in actual expe- 
rience; even the geography, in which he attained such proficiency, has 
little place in his daily routine, while algebra, geometry, and many other 
studies, have none at all. The result is a feeling of inferiority when he is 
brought into contact with others of his age whose training has been en- 
tirely that of practical life, which leads him to suspect that his time has 
been wasted. Not till long afterwards, perhaps, does he recognize the fact 
that the principles on which both theoretical and practical knowledge are 
based, are the same, and that the ability to apply these principles was his 
chief want. The feeling of disappointment referred to might have been 
entirely removed, if, in his instruction, the teacher had kept constantly in 
mind, not the mental discipline alone, but the mental discipline and the 

adaptability to the aifairs of life of the knowledge used in acquir- 
vse of the jjjg ^ijg^^ discipline. One of the most useful instruments for 

accomplishing this double purpose is the newspaper. The 
arithmetic which is now taught by the use of unusual and improb- 
able examples, could be made a living and interesting thing, by the use 
of problems to be found in its pages, which introduce the actual prices of 
articles in daily use. Interest, discount, exchange, the price of bonds and 
stocks, could be made so familiar to the pupil in this way, that the change 
from school to counting-house, which is now attended with such a want of 
ease and so much disappointment, would seem but the continuation of 
study in another class. Reading, also, if taught from the newspaper, 
would familiarize the pupil with the terms used in the daily convei'sation 
of professional and business men; and, through the reports of proceedings 
in every field of human activity, fresh interest could be aroused in studies 
already taken up, while attention could profitably be called to those 
which are ordinarily pursued in more advanced courses; and a partial prep- 
aration for them could thus unconsciously be made. Thus the study of 
geography would receive increased attention, if it could be connected with 
the reports of the interesting events from all parts of the world which are 
daily chronicled, by inquiring into the position on the map, population, 
form of government, etc., of the different countries referred to. By fol- 
lowing, iu this way, the records of campaigns and battles, a knowledge of 



i 



NORMAL SCHOOL 21' 



the topography of the country could be obtained almost without effort, 
which would be easily retained in the memory of the most apathetic schol- 
ar; while opportunity could, at the same time, be taken for digressions 
into its history. Any means within the teacher "s reach of divesting the 
studies pursued of their dry, text-book character should be taken advan- 
tage of; and this cannot be done in any way so easily as by investing them 
with a human interest, by showing that men and women similar to those 
with whom he daily associates are the actors in all these stirring events. 
For this purpose, hardly any medium is superior to that of the daily 
paper. 

NORMAL SCHOOL, the name given, in the United States and in 
some other countries, to a school for the instruction and training of teach- 
ers, being a translation of the French term ecole normale (from the Latin 
oiormn, a rule or model), applied to such schools on their establishment in 
France. " The term normal school", says Hart (In the School-Boom, 
Phil., 1868), " is an unfortunate misnomer, and its general adoption has led 
to much confusion of ideas". In England, these institutions are styled 
training colleges, and in Germany seminaries. Connected with these 
schools there are usually nnodel schools, or schools of practice, in which 
the theoretical principles and methods taught are applied to the actual 
work of instruction and discipline. 

The normal school is properly a professional school for teachers, and 
its curriculum should have strict reference to the special object of such an 
institution. Without this, normal schools are only such in 
Special name, as aU are who permit the professional element to be 
nornial i^^^g^d in those that pertain to general culture. Such culture 
schools, is, of course, needed by the teacher, as it is by the lawyer, the 
physician, or the clergyman, who acquires it in an academic in- 
stitution — college or university; but this by no means supersedes the law 
school, the medical school, or the theological seminary. In like manner 
the normal school proper presupposes academic training, and builds upon 
it the special accomplishments needed for educational work. Normal in- 
struction would be rendered more effective were this fully recognized, and 
a proper separation made between the academic department of such an in- 
stitution and the professional department. When this distinction is not 
made, the latter is very apt to be overlooked; and the antiquated notion 
followed that all that is needed by the teacher is to know what he or she 
has to teach. This is overlooking entirely the science of education, now 
embodied in so many excellent works on the theory and practice of teach- 
ing, and on school management. 

The course of instruction for normal schools should embrace (1) the 
history of education, including the systems or methods of distinguished 
^ educators; (2) the principles of education and instruction, de- 
instr'uctioii ^^^^'^ horn intellectual, psychological, and ethical science, (see 
' Eduoatiox, and Instruction) ; (3) the art of teaching (didactics) ; 
and (4) the methods and rules of school management and discipline (school 
economy); besides (5) the application of these principles and methods to 
specific branches of knowledge, since every subject has, to a certain extent, 
its own system of methodics. — See Bain, Education as a Science (N. Y., 
1881); Baldwin, The Art of School Management {l^.Y.,l88i); Johonnot, 



218 KUMP»ER 

Principles and Practice of Teaching (N. Y., 1881) ; Kellogg, School 
Management (N. Y., 1880); Swett, ^Methods of Teaching (N. Y., 1881). 
See references to educational authorities in the Cyclopcedia of Educa- 
tion, passim; and special list of books for teachers' study, in the Appendix 
of this work. (See also Teachers' Seminaries.) 

NUMBER is here considered as a branch of elementary or object in- 
struction. Great importance should be placed on the means by which 
children acquire their first ideas of number. Since a child's knowledge of 
this subject begins with counting, the first exercises for teaching it should 
be the counting of objects. The child may first be taught to 
How to count as far as ten by using the numeral frame (q. v. ) , or but- 
e aug i . ^^^^^ pencils, the fingers, sticks, marks, or other objects. Next 
he should be taught to count groups of balls, buttons, sticks, or other ob- 
jects, used to represent the several numbers, 07ie, tioo, three, four, Jive, etc. 
By using the groups of objects thus counted as illustrations of the several 
numbers, figures may readily be taught. Let the pupil count 07ie ball on 
the numeral frame, one pencil, 07ie finger, one mark, and then show him 
the figure 1 to represent the number of each object. Next let him count, 
in groups, two balls on the numeral frame, two pencils, two fingers, two 
marks, etc.; then show the figure 2 as a symbol of the number of objects 
in each group. Afterward, require the pupil to count balls, pencils, and 
other objects in groups of three, and then show the figure 3 as the reure- 
sentative of the number counted in each group. In a similar manner, the 
several figures from 2 to 9 may be associated, and their value learned by 
means of counting. In order to teach children the value of the several 
figures by personal experience, let them count in groups two balls, or but- 
tons, etc., and observe that each group contains two ones, — that two is 
equal to one and 07ie more, or two 07ies. After the pupils have counted 
several kinds of objects in groups of th^ee, lead them to notice that 07ie 
and one and one, or three ones, make three, also that two and one make 
three. Proceeding in the same manner to count in gro\xps four objects, 
let the pupils observe that four 07ies, or two and 072e and one, or three and 
one, or two and two, or two times two, make four. By means of similar 
exercises, the value of each number from tico to oiine may be thoroughly 
learned by children. As additional exercises, or a review of previous les- 
sons, let the pupils count as many balls on the numeral frame, or hold up 
as many fingers, as the given figure represents. By this means, all the 
figures from 1 to 9 may be learned as symbols of numbers. In subsequent 
lessons, for teaching figures as representatives of numbers greater than 
nine, let the figures be arranged in groups as follows: 

First g7^oup, 0, 1, 2, 3, 4, 5, 6, 7, 8, 9 
Seco7id g7'oup, 10, 11, 12, 13, 14, 15, 16, 17, 18, 19 
Thi7^d group, 20, 21, 22, 23, 24, 25, 26, 27, 28, 29 
and so on to 99. Requiring the pupils to count as many balls, or other ob- 
jects, to represent in order the numbers symbolized by each of these 
groups, will lead them to understand the value of the numbers that are ex- 
pressed with two figures. This part of the instruction may be greatly 
facilitated by giving the pupil several small sticks, like matches, and requir- 
ing him to count and tie in bundles as many sticks as each of the figures 
from 1 to 9 represents. Then to furnish the pupil with favorable oppor- 



XUMERAL FRAME 219 

tnnitles of learning, by personal observation and experience, that each 
number represented by two figures in the second group is composed of one 
bundle of ten ones, and one or more single ones added, let him count and 
tie in a bundle ten sticks to represent the number 10; and then tie ten 
sticks in a bundle and add to it one single stick to represent the number 
11, and so on to 19. Two bundles of ten sticks each may be made for the 
number 20, and two similar bundles and a single stick for 21; and so on to 
29. In this manner, children may be taught to comprehend the value of 
all the simple numbers to 100. The knowledge obtained by means of the 
exercises described above will prepare the pupils to learn readily and in- 
telligently both the value and the form of writing numbers through hun- 
dreds, and thereby to understand the principles of numeration and notatio7i. 
See CcTRRiE, Early and Infant School Education (London); Calkins, 
New Primary Object Lessons (IS". Y., 18T1). 

NUMERAL FRAME. This simple apparatus has been in use for 
many centuries. In some form or other, it is now used for teaching num- 
ber, in all parts of the world. It is sometimes employed to represent 
units, tens, hundreds, thousands, etc., in numeration. This use of the 
numeral frame renders it necessary to give artificial values to the balls on 
different wires; and notwithstanding that this is analogous, in order, to the 
arrangement of the numerical system of figures, there is danger that young 
children, by the use of it for this purpose, may become confused between 
the actual numerical value of a ball and its several artificial values. 
Inasmuch as numeration can be illustrated much more intelligently by the 
method described under Number (q. v.), if aided by the use of the black- 
board, it is not advisable to attempt an explanation of it by the numeral 
frame; not, at least, until the pupils have acquired a definite understand- 
ing of the relation between the value of single figures, and their values as 
dependent upon their relative positions in regard to other figures. The 
most important uses of the numeral frame are, to teach a class of pupils to 
count, and to illustrate the value of numbers and figures; also to teach the 
first steps in adding, subtracting, multiplying, and dividing. For the first 
steps in adding, let the pupils add balls on the numeral frame, by oyies as 
far as ten. When they can do this readily, let them add on the black- 
board a column composed of Is; then let them add a like column of figures 
on their slates. Subsequently, teach them to add balls on the numeral 
frame by iicos; then to add a column of figure 2s on the blackboard; and 
then on their slates. When the adding of Is and 2s has thus been learned, 
proceed in the same manner with threes, fours, etc. After the pupils have 
learned to add threes as above, they may be taught by these three steps to 
add Is and 2s in the. same column; then to add Is, 2s and 3s in the same 
column. In this manner the pupils may be taught to add readily and 
rapidly single columns composed of such figures as 6, 7, 8, 9. To give 
children an idea of subtraction, teach them to count backward on the 
numeral frame from ten; thus, 10, 9, 8, 7, 6, 5, 4, 3, 2, 1, 0. Sub- 
-sequently, call on a pupil to hold the numeral frame, to take one ball from 
two balls, and tell how many remain; then one ball from three balls, etc. 
Proceed in a similar manner with other numbers, taking care to arrange 
the exercises so as to give the pupil as much actual practice as possible in 
taking balls or other objects from a larger number of objects. To illustrate 



220 OBJECT TEACHING 

the first ideas of multiplication to a class of young pupils, arrange tlie balls 
on the numeral frames in groups of twos, threes, etc. Place on one wire 
two groups of two each, and lead the pupils to perceive that they may say 
that, "two and two make four"; or that " two twos make four"; also that 
" two times two make four". Place on another wire three groups of two 
each, and let the pupils observe that " two and two and two make six" ; or 
that "three twos make six"; also that "three times two are six". Proceed 
in a similar manner with numbers, and so arrange the exercises as to 
furnish the pupils as much individual practice as possible. After each step 
has been illustrated by the numeral frame, place figures on the blackboard 
to represent what has been thus taught. To illustrate the first ideas of 
division, arrange balls in groups ot four, six, eight, ten, etc., on the 
different wires. Lead the pupils to see that each of these groups can be 
divided into groups of twos. Then require them to divide the groups thus 
and tell how many groups of twos can be made from four balls, six balls, 
eight balls, etc. Let the pupils also find how^ many threes there are in six, 
nine, twelve; and how many fours in eight, twelve, etc. That which is 
learned in each step may be represented by figures on the blackboard. — 
(See Number.) 

OBJECT TEACHING, a method of instruction in which objects 
are employed by means of which to call into systematic exercise the 

observing faculties of young pupils, with the threefold design, 
Design. ^-^ ^^ cultivate the senses, (2) to train the perceptive faculty, so 
that the mind may be stored with clear and vivid ideas, and (3), simul- 
taneously with these, to cultivate the power of expression by associating 
with the ideas thus formed appropriate language. The merit of introducing 

object teaching as a special method of elementary instruction, is 
inH'oduced '^^^^^^^7 attributed to Pestalozzi; but Comenius, Locke, Rousseau, 
' Basedow, Rochow, and others based their systems of education, 
more or less, upon the same principle ; that is, they recognized the necessity 
of communicating ideas, or of affording to the mind the means to grasp 
ideas from objects, by actual perception, before attempting to teach the 
verbal expression of those ideas, and that, without such ideas, mere 
" book-learning" is useless, Pestalozzi appears, however, to have had only 
a slight knowledge of the works of those educationists. Inspired by the 
. reading of Rousseau's tlmile to study the phases of mental 
^s^^'ozzt. gpQ^^^h^ }^g arrived at the conclusion that the teaching of his 
day was fundamentally wrong, from its violation of, or inattention to, the 
laws of mental development. These laws he believed to be, (1) that the 
knowledge of things should precede that of words, (2) that, for the acquisi- 
tion of this knowledge, the only effective agents, in the first stages of 
mental growth, are the senses, chief of which is the eye; (3) that the first 
objects to be studied by the child are those immediately surrounding it, 
and these, only in their simplest forms and relations; and (4) that from 
these objects as a center, the sphere of knowledge should be widened by a, 
gradual extension of the powers of observation to more distant objects. 
The first instruction, therefore, according to this plan, should consist in 
concentrating the attention upon concrete things, in such a way as to re- 
sult in a thorough training of the observing faculties, so that the concep- 



OBJECT TEACHING 221 

tions witTi which, the mind is stored may be as well defined, and as true 
to nature, as possible. So impressed was Pestalozzi with the correctness, 
and the supreme importance, of this method, that he declared that the sum 
of his achievements in education was the establishment of the truth that 
" the culture of the outer and inner senses is the absolute foundation of all 
knowledge — the first and highest principle of instruction". 

The failure of the first attempts of Pestalozzi and his followers, how- 
ever, in the practical application of his theories, was discouraging; and the 
faith of the progressive educators who had accepted them as a 

successful ^^^ gospel, was seriously shaken. The reason of their failure, 
* however, was that their practice was in conflict with the very 
principles which Pestalozzi had enunciated as fundamental. The human 
body, with which they began their instructions, is not only highly compos- 
ite in its structure, and difficult of description in the language of the child, 
but, by its very nearness, is rendered unfit for an object of study by 
children, their senses being most powerfully, and, indeed, almost exclusively, 
turned to the observation of objects external to themselves. By attempt- 
ing, therefore, to name in detail and to describe the limbs, their form, 
color, size, actions, and uses, the new theory was exposed to the ridicule of 
its enemies, and placed in serious peril. In all the Protestant countries of 
Europe, however, and especially in Germany, the leaven of truth contained 
in the principles of Pestalozzi, wrought a gradual but sure reform in the 
old method of instruction. — Object teaching became universal 

Effect of JQ j^Q primary schools; and the dignity and usefulness of the 

^duction. teacher were increased by the very impossibility of prescribing 
any one method in which the principles should be applied, thus 
giving special prominence to the fact that the determining cause in favor 
of one method over another was the individual ability of the teacher. In- 
stead of one invariable method, which might be unintelligently acquired 
and mechanically applied, a variety of methods now presented themselves, 
each dependent for its success upon circumstances. The individuality of 
the pupil suddenly acquired a new importance; and the teacher's individu- 
ality, also, became more than ever before an essential factor in the 
successful conduct of the school. For the difficult work thus foreshadowed, 
a long and careful preparation was necessary on the part of the student. 
^ . The first step in this preparation was the observation of the 

J^g^^^^'^^*^'^ educational work of some good teacher; then a thorough study, 
in the normal school, of the subjects of pedagogy, psychology, 
the history of education, the natural sciences, universal history, mathemat- 
ics, and arts; and, finally, a course of practical teachiDg in trial lessons, 
under the supervision of model teachers and the student's own associates. 
Among the writers above mentioned, one of the principal points of con- 
. troversy was in regard to the necessity of educating the senses. 

Points of ]\j[j^jjy denied altogether this necessity, and insisted that object 
controversy. , ,"^. i 1 1 i ° i -, • \ n • ■ ■ 

teachmg should be reserved exclusively lor exercises m using 

and understanding language. The senses, so they argued, take care of 

themselves, whenever an interest in surrounding objects is awakened by 

the necessities of daily life; and the common school, they said, can present 

but few objects of interest on which the senses can be profitably exercised. 

If, for instance, pictures of objects are presented — as is most frecjuently 



222 OBJECT TEACHING 

the case, and if these pictures are large and faithful copies of the originals 
— which is rarely the case — the exercise is still confined to only one 
sense ; and experience proves that this is insufficient to awaken a lively 
interest. The impression made on the sight, therefore, is short-lived and 
feeble. If, on the other hand, the objects themselves are produced, as 
these are generally house utensils, or articles of school furniture, only a 
languid interest is aroused in the pupils' minds, because there is rarely any 
new feature to be observed in objects so familiar. The incentive to any 
observation or comparison of qualities, therefore, is utterly wanting; and 
any sharpening of the senses is improbable. If, on the contrary, the exer- 
cises upon objects be carried on for the purpose of enriching the child's 
vocabulary, and of storing his mind with just and accurate conceptions, by 
causing him to connect with every word its proper idea, all will have been 
done to benefit the pupil that can reasonably be expected. The opponents 
of this view, however, insisted that the use of object teaching for the 
exclusive purpose of the acquisition of language, would overthrow that 
fundamental principle of the system which discountenances mere word 
learning. The correct understanding and use of language, also, they 
thought, could be learned as well from books and conversation; while, if 
the child is made to understand, that to talk fluently and correctly of ob- 
jects is all that is required, and that a real knowledge of those objects is of 
no consequence, clever talk will always be more highly valued by him 
than exact knowledge. According to their view, the pupil brings with 
him to the primary school only the raw material out of which objective 
knowledge and the proper use of the senses may be developed: his mental 
pictures are wanting in definiteness and in order. These must be taken 
to pieces, i. e., analyzed, and recomposed, i. e., synthetized, at the sight, 
hearing, or touch, of real objects. If the interest of the children in the 
exercise of the senses is lacking, it is the teacher's duty to excite it; and 
this should be easy with young children, if the teacher's interest in the 
subject is lively enough to communicate itself to them. 

While the rapid progress of science and art in our day infinitely aug- 
ments the mass of knowledge which it is desirable and important for every 
body to learn, the increasing artificiality of our daily life tends to alienate 
us from a spontaneous exercise of our senses; and this deficiency must be 
supplied by education, to enable us to compass the amount of knowledge 
which it is desirable to acquire. The exercise of the senses is 
Education ^ot only practically useful, but it is, in most cases, full of inter- 
senses. ^^^' ^^ illustrate this, let pupils be asked to estimate by sight 
the length of a pen-holder, the dimensions of a window-pane, 
distances on the floor or on the ground, the weight of objects that can be 
held in the hand, or to distinguish shades of color, and the differences in 
pitch or quality of musical sounds. Such exercises are not only amusing, 
but useful; while, on the other hand, there is abundant evidence that the 
circumstances of daily life do not, of themselves, educate the senses. Thus, 
let a dozen countrymen be asked the length of a certain way over which 
they often travel, and the probability is that a dozen different answers will 
be given, many of them wide of the mark. Instances might be multi- 
plied indefinitely to show that the senses are not self-educative. Some 
educators, while not objecting to any of the fi.ve purposes to which object 



OBJECT TEACHING ' 223 

lessons may be applied; namely, (1) the preparation of the pupil for 
serious learning; (2) the sharpening of the senses, and the exercise of all 
mental functions; (3) exercise in language; (4) the acquisition of 
Object knowledge; and (5) moral training; still have insisted that a 
teaching <fc distinction should be made between object teaching and objective 
teaching teaching] the former comprising exercises in which_ the ob- 
jects are taught for themselves, i. e., for instruction in all the 
properties which are peculiar to them; the latter, for the acquisition of 
that generalized or fundamental knowledge which is common to many 
widely different objects. The former, they contended, should occupy only 
a part of the time during the first year or two, after which it should cease; 
but every branch of learning should, in turn, be treated objectively. The 
method of procedure should be, first, the presentation of the object. This 
should be analyzed by the pupils, and immediately reconstructed, the 
teacher supplying nothing but technical terms which are supposed to be 
unknown to the pupils, but guiding them by conversation to observe, com- 
pare, and reason correctly and in proper language, to rise from the single 
features of the object to its entirety, from similar features to generaliza- 
tions, from the concrete to the abstract, from facts to laws. The oppo- 
nents of this view said that the principle was good, but did not go far 
enough. In the first place, there is a vast body of knowledge that cannot 
be treated objectively. All facts, for instance, in regard to thedays of the 
week, and the months, their names, number, etc.; many facts in regard to 
time, such as the number of seconds in a minute, the number of minutes 
in an hour, etc., the names of the seasons, the method of telling time by 
the clock, — these and many other necessary facts cannot be objectively 
presented, but must be learned arbitrarily; while, at a later period in edu- 
cation, there appear astronomical, geographical, and historical facts, which 
must simply be taken on trust, and committed to memory. In view of 
these things, text-books are indispensable; and all attempts to teach with- 
out them°are useless, and result in a waste of precious time. While rec- 
ognizing, therefore, the value of object teaching in many branches, and 
its pre-eminent value in a few, they assert that it has its natural limita- 
tions beyond which memorizing and an adherence to the text-book are the 
only proper means to be relied upon by the teacher. At the present time, 
this latter view — that a combination of the two methods should be em- 
ployed, is in the ascendant. In Europe, especially in Germany, this re- 
actionary movement is thought to be fostered from political and religious 
motives. In the United States, the demand for teachers has so far ex- 
ceeded the supply from the normal schools, without a corresponding rise 
in salaries, that the standard of qualifications for teachers has not been 
maintained at the height which many educational reformers had hoped it 
would be. In short, the principles and system of Pestalozzi cannot be 
said, at the present time, to be fully carried out. Object teaching should 
be begun as early as possible, and in the manner of the kindergarten, and 
should be followed by objective and conceptive teaching, which 
teacMna should be carried through every branch of learning. The men- 
^' tal growth of pupils, however, should not be^ retarded by a 
superfluous use of this method. A safe criterion, by which the teacher 
may know, at any moment, whether he has made a proper use of the ob- 



224 ORAL INSTRUCTION 

ject method, may be found in the self-activity of his pupils, their ability 
to grasp, in their answers to his questions, the general fact, proposition, or 
law. The new method is justly called the developing viethod (q. v,), the 
pupils' minds being made to develop themselves, the teacher only suggest- 
ing what they are to discover. Every pupil is, as it were, to rediscover 
every science in the genetic method (q. v.), a difficult task for the teacher, 
and apparently a circuitous way for the pupil. But because of its thor- 
oughness, it is the most rapid way of learning; and its results are in- 
delibly fixed in the mind. This method, also, if early begun, and consist- 
ently carried out, is successful with every child, and saves precious time, 
which, later in life, may be devoted to those higher branches, that lie 
beyond the common-school coarse, but which are every year becoming, in 
many cases, highly desirable, and, in some, indispensable. The literature 
of object teaching is very extensive; for an enumeration of the piincipal 
works, see special list in the Appendix of this work. (See also Color, 
Form, and Number.) 

ORAL INSTRUCTION is a technical term in use in the common 

schools of the United States to denote instruction, without text-books, in 

the nature and uses of common objects, and also in the elements of natural 

science. In a certain sense, all instruction given by the teacher 

JJejinea. ^j^ ^^^q class room, either to supplement the text-book, or by way 
of general explanation, may be said to be oral; and, considered in this 
sense, it belongs to every subject taught. But oral instruction, as it ap- 
pears in courses of study, is limited to a distinct channel of teaching, and, 
therefore, is not to be confounded with general class instruction in the 
entire range of subjects. It is distinct from object teaching, because it is 
not confined to teaching through sensible objects. It deals also with more 
advanced pupils — those, for example, who have passed through the lowest, 
or primary grades, and who may be supposed to have benefited bj' what is 
known as object teaching. It has to do, moreover, with elementary knowl- 
edge, and has been gradually narrowed to instruction in natural science. 
As might be gathered from the word era/, its leading or cardinal idea is 
instruction without a text-book. The teacher is in the place of the book. 
The information given flows entirely from him; and the skill with which 
he imparts this, is the measure of his success. Closely allied in importance 
to the foregoing, is the principle that the instruction shall be familiar. In 

M fh r} ^^^ methods, it must approach closely those that are adopted in 
^ ° ^' an intelligent family circle; it must emulate the kindliness, 
patience, and watchfulness of a parent, or of a deeply interested friend. 
With a clear idea as to the kind and amount of instruction to be given at 
each lesson, it must avoid mere amusement and puerilities, on the one 
hand, and the danger of a mechanical and hard method, on the other. 
The test of such familiar instruction is the interest which the teacher 
creates and maintains; the want of life and animation on the part of the 
pupils is an unfailing measure of the teacher's short-coming. But instruc- 
tion to be familiar must be fertile in illustration. In no part of the teach- 
er's work is there greater need of versatility. It is in this that the vast 
advantage of oral teaching over that which depends on the text-book is 
apparent. Pliancy, variety, suitableness to the particular wants of certain 
pupils, or of the class as a whole, simple familiar allusions and illustrations. 



ORAL INSTRUCTION 225 

all come into play. If experiments are necessary, they should be always 
of the simplest kind, and with the commonest materials, such as nearly 
every child can obtain, if he can be induced to imitate the experiments. So 
far as objects are needed, those that are easily obtainable are to be prefer- 
red. The approach to the pupil's mind through his senses is carefully to 
be kept open; most constantly of all, the avenue of sight, although, of 
course, the other senses are not to be neglected. As a natural result of 
this familiar instruction, the interest of the pupils will manifest itself in 
inquiries, and especially in a desire to communicate the glimmerings of 
their own knowledge. This will render the exercise still more familiar, 
])reak down the barrier of reserve on the part of the pupils, stimulate 
observation and thought throughout the class, and react on the mind of 
the teacher, compelling perhaps new illustrations, a more carefully con- 
sidered statement, or fresh investigation outside of school. From what 
has been stated, it will be seen that oral instruction is widely separated 
from lecturing. The children are brought immediately in contact with the 
mind of the teacher, by means of skillful questioning on his part, by re- 
quiring from them connected statements, and by stimulating them with his 
approval when a happy answer or statement has been made. This method 
never loses sight of class instruction, and, therefore, cannot be carried on 
without the assistance of the class. Nor is it a recitation in the generally 
received acceptation of the word. There is no lesson to be learned in the 
sense implied by a recitation, nor any to be recited. The memory is of 
course taxed, but it is not taxed by any lesson to be committed as a task. 
The measure of the pupil's interest is the measure of his acquisition. What- 
ever he learns is in no sense compulsory. Skillful reviewing is, indeed, 
used to test the hold that the oral instruction has kept on the pupil, and 
to supplement what has been imparted, by new or more lively illustration. 
But repetition, in a mechanical or rote sense, as understood to be an under- 
lying principle in text-book instruction, is not used in oral instruction. 
The subjects to which oral instruction, as a special method, is usually 
confined, are embraced, under the head of natural science. While it 
does not aim to make the instruction in these subjects scientific, 
sc^e e it does aim to impart such instruction in a methodical 
way, and with the most careful accuracy. Wherever classi- 
fication is necessary, such classification naturally becomes more or less 
scientific. Whenever definitions are necessary, they must approach 
scientific accuracy. But the scientific nomenclature, except in those 
cases in which it has passed into common use, is carefully avoided. 
Latin or Greek terms, therefore, being burdensome to the young, however 
instructive to the adult, are generally to be discarded, and familiar or com- 
mon names to be used. As a thorough scientific classification is not the 
object of oral instruction, neither does it endeavor to make the treatment 
of the various subjects exhaustive. It has done much of its true work 
when it has awakened attention, strengthened observation, led the pupils 
to collect illustrative objects, taught them to group and arrange what they 
have observed, and implanted in them a tolerably clear idea of the simpler 
elements of the science, to which the instruction has been confined. It has 
done its full work when, in addition to this, it has accustomed the pupil to 
express, in his own language, what he has learned and retained, without the 



22 G ORDER 

painful halting and poverty of language so often manifest in the class room. 
With some approach to scientific accuracy, oral instruction may be defined 
as the union of conceptive and objective training. It does not 
Objective discard objective illustration, nor does it depend entirely on the 
^ f-^^^' development of percepiion to furnish new ideas. It proceeds on 
' the principle, that, in the mind of every healthy child of eight 
years of age, there is a vast number of tolerably distinct conceptions, ob- 
tained through the senses, as well as from conversation, from reading, from 
home instruction, and from play; that these conceptions are particularly 
abundant in relation to natural objects; and that it is the office of the oral 
instructor to recognize their existence by using them to form more complex 
ideas, or as the nucleuses around which to arrange the new ideas imparted 
during instruction. As to the age when this instruction should 
Age and ^^ given, as well as its importance, the following words of Pres- 
' 'ident Porter, in Tiie Human Intellect, may be cited. "The 

studies which should be first pursued are those which require and discipline 
the powers of observation and acquisition, and which involve imagination 
and memory, in contrast with those which demand severe efforts ancl trained 
habits of thought. Inasmuch also as material objects are apprehended and 
mastered in early life with far greater ease and success than the acts and 
states of the spirit, objective and material studies should have almost the 
exclusive precedence. The capacity of exact and discriminating percep- 
tion, and of clear and retentive memory, should be developed as largely as 
possible. The imagination in all its forms should be directed and elevated 
— we do not say stimulated, because in the case of most children, its 
activity is never-tiring, whether they be at study, work, or play. We do 
not say, cultivate perception, memory and fancy, to the exclusion or 
repression of thought, for this is impossible. These powers, if exercised by 
human beings, must be interpenetrated by thought. If wisely cultivated 
by studies properly arranged, they will necessarily involve discrimination, 
comparison, and explanation. To teach pure observation, or the mastery 
of objects or words, without classification and interpretation, is to be igno- 
rant even to simple stupidity". Further on. the same author, in speaking 
of the various studies to be prosecuted in childhood says, " Natural history 
in all its branches, as contrasted with the science of nature, or scientific 
physics, should be mastered with the objects before the eye — flowers, 
minerals, shells, birds, and beasts. These studies should all be mastered in 
the spring-time of life, when the tastes are simple, the heart is fresh, and 
the eye is sharp and clear. But science of every kind, whether of language, 
of nature, of the soul, or of God, as science should not be prematurely 
taught". 

ORDER, in school management, implies (1) the existence of ajudicious 
system of regulations, and (2) a uniform and habitual observance of them 
by the pupils. It is one of the most important elements of a good school, 
since it enables the teacher to concentrate all its educative agencies without 
embarrassment or interruption. The characteristics of good order are (1) 
attention on the part of the pupils to the legitimate work of the school, 
(2) obedience and respect to teachers, (3) decorous deportment ■ — the ab- 
sence of tumult, rudeness, frivolity, and frolicsome actions, calculated to 
disturb the school, and (4) propriety and exactness in the school evolutions 



OKDER OF STUDIES - ORTHOGRAPHY 227 

and drill. Order is the result of skill and tact on the part of the teacher; 
it cannot be fully maintained unless he is vested with suitable authority, 
so as to be able to correct disorder, as soon as it manifests itself. Gen- 
eral disorder in a school can result only from bad management, indicating 
incompetency on the part of the teacher. " If a school be well organized ", 
says Wickersham, "its classes well arranged, its work well systematized; 
if pupils be properly employed in study, in recitation, in exercise; if 
school-government be well understood and wisely administered, a large 
proportion of the offenses which now occur in school will disappear." — 
(See Discipline, and Government.) 

ORDER OF STUDIES. See Coukse of Instruction. 
ORTHOGRAPHY, as a science, treats of the representation of 
spoken language by visible signs; it includes a systematic history of such 

signs, and a discussion of the principles according to which they 
% treats ^^^^^^ ^^ made and used. Picture writing is first used; pictures 

of objects are used as signs of the names of the objects, then of 
initial syllables in such nauies, and finally of elementary sounds. The 
pictures, meantime, are abbreviated and modified to what we call letters. 
The essential principle of alphabetic writing is that a perfect alphabet 
must have one character for each elementary sound in the language, and 

only one. Subordinate rules are, that the characters should be 
^Tabet ^^^^ ^*^ write and to distinguish, and shapely; like sounds should 
* have like signs, and similar series of sounds should have anal- 
ogous sets of signs; each character should be so shaped as to suggest, to some 
extent, the position of the organs of speech in forming the sound; derived 
alphabets are esteemed the better for embodying important history; all 
nations should use the same signs with similar values. No nation has 
ever made any near approach to a perfect alphabet. The groAvth from 
picture writing goes on without much guidance from ideas, and all the 
qualities which are merely matters of history and symmetry, are of little 
consequence in comparison with the essential principle of phonetic con- 
venience. The Anglo-Saxon language was reduced to writing in Roman 
letters by the missionaries, who converted the people to Christianity, and 

gave them a pretty good alphabet. The letters were used in 
A^9^o-Sax- ^i^g^j, Roman values, or nearly so, and new characters were 
071 spe mg. ^^^^^ ^^^ ^j^^ sounds of a in fat, tli in their (dh), ih in thin, 
and w. After the Norman conquest, chaos came again with Anglo- 
Saxon, or rather English, spelling. A large part of the words of each 
race of the new people were difficult for the other to pronounce. The 
scholars inclined to spell in the old book fashion; but the Normans dropped 
the special Anglo-Saxon discriminations, and left many of their own letters 

standing which w^ere not pronounced by the people; and many 
sveUina ^^^^^^^ ^^^^ inserted to no purpose in ill-directed attempts to 
y ^ ^^^* represent the strange combinations. Then followed a change 
in the whole gamut, so to speak, of the vowel sounds. The close vowels 
were changed under the accent into diphthongs by taking an a sound 
before them. The old i, jDronounced as in machine has thus changed to 

ai, pronounced as i in mine; u as in rule has given rise to aw, 
changes Pronounced as ou in house. The open and mixed vowels have 

become closer: a, as in far, changing to a fthat is, e) as in 



228 OKTHOGKAPHY 

faie or wall, or to o as in liome (A-S. lidm)\ e as in tTiey, changing to 
e (that is, i) in me; o as in foe, changing to oo (that is, u) as in 
moon (A-S. mdna). Single characters have thus come to stand for diph- 
thongs, and the long and short sounds, which go in pairs in other languages, 
are denoted in ours by diiferent characters, and come from different 
sources. Intermediate between the old a (far) and e (met) has become 
established a in fit, fare; between a (far) ando (note), o in not and 7ior, 
and the sounds of u in hut, hum, have also arisen. All these have no 
special signs. Four consonants s/^, zli^ th, dh are in the same condition. 
The people have long since ceased to feel any necessity for keeping sounds 
and signs together. Changes go on without any record in the writing; ety- 
mologists slip in new silent letters, on the ground of imaginary deriva- 
tions; old monsters, fertile in the popular fancy, propagate themselves in 
the congenial environment; and, altogether, we have attained the worst 
alphabetical spelling in the world. For the history of all these changes, 
see YaIAAb's History of English Pronunciation (London, 1867); Sweet's 
History of English Sounds (London, 1874); 'H.A'LD'EMA.ii'B Analytic Or- 
thography (Phiia., 1858); ^krcb.'^ Anglo-Saxon Gj'ajnniar (N.Y., 1810); 
and the articles Anglo-Saxon, and English, the Study of, with the au- 
thorities there referred to. 

Orthography, in a narrower sense, is the art of spelling correctly, ac- 
cording to the standard of a language. It first demands the attention of 

teachers as the art of inculcating the spelling of English accord- 
J- ing to the dictionaries of our language. In early times, there 

was no standard English spelling. The printers added or sub- 
tracted letters for convenience of spacing; the same word will be found 
spelt several different w^ays on the same page. Dr. Johnson's Dictionary 
(1755) was the first recognized standard. The common way of teaching 
spelling, is to teach from a spelling book the form and name of each of the 

letters of the alphabet; then to practice on combinations of the 
Methods letters in pairs, naming each letter and then uttering the sound 
Jodlir^a^ ^^ the combination; then to practice in the same way on com- 

binations of three letters; then on words of two syllables, and 
BO on. These syllables and words are selected with care; similar sounds 
are grouped together, and the groups arranged in a progressive order of 
diflBculty in spelling-books. The first steps of this process may be made 
easier by using blocks with the letters on them for the learner to name 
and arrange into syllables; by setting him to write the letters on the slate, 
on paper, or on the blackboard; by adding pictures of the objects the 
names of which are spelt; or by the use of rhymes, and other contrivances 
of artificial memory. Another method is to begin with words as wholes, 
and, after some progress has been made in reading in that way, to direct 
attention to the separate letters, their names, and sounds (word method). 
Teachers proceeding in this way often name the letters by the sounds which 
they have in the word to be spelt, and not by their proper names. This 
is sometimes called the phonic method. Scholars are led on to more 
difficult words. Text-books of hard words, more or less classified, with 
rules for the most puzzling groups, are prepared, and blanks for written 
exercises in spelling. Some little help may be gained by rules, and mne- 
monic contrivances; but the standard spelling of our language is so ir- 



ORTHOGEAPHY 220 

regular, that continual practice for many years is necessary to make any 

approach to the mastery of it. Among the most efficient helps to the 

teacher is the spelling match, for which sides are chosen which contend for 

the victory. It should be noted that continual practice in 

^match ^^^*^^^^o ^°^ writing is needed, or training to spell aloud in class 
will not save from mistakes in writing, further, the most 
important words for each person are his own vocabulary, the words 
which he uses in his own writing. Perfect accuracy in these is the 
end most to be desired in teaching. If this habit is once established, un- 
usual words will be looked up, when the writer has occasion to use them. 
AVith all aids and arts, good spelling is one of the most rare and costly 
accomplishments; and, naturally, stress is laid on it as the sign of a 
thoroughly educated person out of all proportion to its real value. The 
best teachers in other respects often fail in spelling. English orthography 
is the opprobrium of English scholarship, and the greatest hindrance to 
education and to the spread of our language. Our children spend three 
years in learning to spell a little; while German children get further in 
a single year. Millions of doUars are spent every year in 

reform W^^^^^o silent letters. Earnest efforts are now making for re- 
form. The philological associations of England and America, 
teachers' associations, state and national, in England and America, and 
some state legislatures, have committees appointed on the subject. Several 
schemes of reform have been presented, the most important of which are 
those of A. J. Ellis and I. Pitman, E. Jones, A. M. Bell, and E. Leigh. 
Mr. Bell has invented a set of characters wholly unlike our present letters, 
which indicate by their form the position of the organs of speech. It can 
hardly come into speedy use in common books. Scholars have begun to 
use it somewhat in scientific treatises. (See Bell, Visible Sj^eecli, Lon- 
don, 1867.) ]Mr. Pitman has proposed an alphabet containing 16 new let- 
ters; and there is already quite a body of literature in that alphabet. Dr. 
E. Leigh has combined a phonetic print, like Pitman's, with the standard 
spelling. (See Leigh, Pronouncing Orthography, St. Louis, 1864, and 
his later publications in New York.) Elementary books for schools, 
printed according to his system, have been used for several years in St. 
Louis, Washington, New York, Boston, and other cities, and are said to 
save nuich of the time usually spent in learning to read. Editions of most 
of the elementary books (primers, etc.) published in the United States are 
issued in Leigh's print. (See Phonetics.) Mr. Ellis and Mr. Jones pro- 
pose systems based on the present spelling, using always the same letters 
for each sound that are now oftenest used to denote it, as follows: (Mr. 
Jones's scheme) a as in at, aa (father), ai (aid), au (taught), b, c (cat), ch 
(chip), d, e (met), ee (eel),/, g (go), h, i (in), ie (pie),j, l,m,n, ng (sing), 
o (on), oe (foe), 01 (oil), oo (ooze), ou (out),p, r,s, (sun), sh (ship),^ t, ih 
(their, thine), u (bun), ue (hue), v, w, y,z (zeal). This scheme is de- 
fective in giving the letters different values in combination from those 
which they have when alone, and in representing so many elementary 
sounds by digraphs. Besides, it does not serve to bring our spelling into 
harmony with other languages. Its advantage is, that it can be set up 
from common printer's cases, and that it can be read by any one who cau 
read the old spelling. — See Cyclopcedia of Educaiion. 



230 PATIENCE — PENMANSHIP 

PATIENCE, the calm endurance of necessary toil or suffering. This 
quality, though similar to perseverance in the prolonged effort which its 
exercise presupposes, differs from it chiefly in the equable temper with 
which that effort is made. A patient spirit is one of the most important 
elements in the character of a successful educator. Many occasions, indeed, 
will occur when patience will be the only virtue which will command suc- 
cess. Its cultivation, therefore, is desirable both on this account, and 
because of its value in mental discipline. Its possession, moreover, is 
necessary both to the teacher and to the pupil. To the former, it is of 
special use in his treatment of the varying dispositions with which he has 
to deal. The provocations to impatience and ill temper are so many and 
so constant, that, without patience, the teacher "s life will be a continued 
series of annoyances. Impatience in children is the result either of tempera- 
ment or hereditary predisposition; and, in dealing with it, the teacher 
should remember that nothing so tends to develop and foster it in his pu- 
pils, as a constant practical exhibition of it in his daily intercourse with 
them. As nothing is so infectious as ill temper, so nothing tends so 
rapidly to curb ill temper as that quiet forbearance which a patient spirit 
diffuses around it like an atmosphere. The mental powers, also, act with 
much greater effect when the calmness of the judgment is undisturbed by 
ill temper or impatience. Perseverance may, indeed, exist without patience, 
and to a certain extent may accomplish its objects; but it is safe to say 
that more than half the good results which perseverance aided by patience 
might accomplish, are thrown away if patience does not accompany it. 

PEDAGOGY, or Pedagogics (Gr. Traidayuyla, from TraJg, TvatSog, 
a boy, and aycoySg, leading or guiding) , the science and art of giving in- 
struction to children, particularly in school, or as by a school-teacher 
(TTaidayuyog). This term is more generally used in Germany than in the 
United States or Great Britain, in which the theory and art of the teacher 
or educator is designated as iyistruction or education; indeed, the word 
pedagogue is, in these countries, used as a term of reproach. For infor- 
mation in regard to the various departments of pedagogy, see Education, 
Instruction, Didactics, etc. 

PENMANSHIP, writing with the pen, although the term is some- 
times used to indicate any kind of handwriting, or chirograpliy, the 
pen being the most important instrument for writing. The 
value, ability to write is one of the two fundamental characteristics of 
an educated person, the inability to read and write constituting what is 
technically called illiteracy; and yet, in advanced education, a legible or 
elegant style of handwriting is not considered of great importance ; for the 
cases are very few in which a candidate either for admission to a college or 
university, or for a graduating diploma, is rejected for not being able to 
write; any scrawl, however illegible or inelegant, being usually accepted as 
evidence of such ability. The consequence is, that good penmanship has 
not been the distinguishing feature of college graduates, but rather the re- 
verse. When the value of this accomplishment, in every sphere of life, is 
considered, it will be obvious that the policy of thus disparaging penman- 
ship as an accomplishment of a scholar is an entirely mistaken one. It is 
true that it cannot be considered as an element of superior instruction ; 
but those who have the direction of that grade of instruction, should al- 



FHOXETICS 231 

ways insist upon the completion of the inferior grades as an indispensable 
prerequisite for admission to higher studies. In elementary schools, pen- 
manship constitutes a very important branch of instruction; and, in these, 
sufficient time should be given to it to insure, at least, a respectable degree 
M r cL f^^ excellence to each of the pupils. — There are various so-called 
teaching: systems of teaching penmanship, but the underlying principles 
are the same in all, the difference chiefly consisting in a diversity 
in the arrangement of the elements of the letters, with slight modifications 
in their forms and mode of execution, and in the exercises for practice. In 
order to write well, the pupil must have (1) a thorough knowledge of the 
forms of the letters, and (2) a command of the pen to execute them. 
The two fundamental requirements must be made simultaneously, except 
that some previous elementary instruction and practice in drawing will 
aid the pupil very much in his first lessons in penmanship. In these les- 
sons, the forms should be adapted to the pupil's untrained muscles, and 
should increase in complexity and difficulty pcaH passu with the training 
of the hand and arm. The proper position of the body and the correct 
mode of holding the pen are indispensable prerequisites to successful work. 
Lessons in penmanship also presuppose a careful analysis of the elementary 
forms of the letters; and, in this respect, systems greatly differ. They 
have, however, many points in common — indeed every thing that is es- 
sential. Commencing with straight lines, to be made at the proper slope, 
and with perfect parallelism, the pupil advances progressively to the po^ 
hook, the loop, the ellipse, as in the letter o, etc., till, by practicing these 
and their combinations, he has mastered all the small letters of the script 
alphabet, when he proceeds, in a similar manner, with the capitals, from 
which he passes to words, phrases, sentences, and paragraphs. The copy- 
book should not be used after the pupil has become thoroughly familiar 
with the proper forms of the letters, and thus acquired a fair style of 
writing. Much time is frequently lost in compelling pupils, year after 
year, to write copies. Quantity as well as quality should be required; 
excellence in penmanship consisting both in correctness and speed of exe- 
cution. Many useful exercises may be blended with practice in penman- 
ship, as the learning of the forms used in business, such as bills, receipts, 
modes of superscribing and addressing letters, etc. Practice in calligraphy/, 
or artistic penmanship, is also of use, but should not be carried to an 
extreme in schools. 

PHONETICS (Gr. 06w?;r^«:d, from (puvy, voice), a term used to denote 
not only the science of voice-sounds {phonology/), but the arts of phonot- 
ypy (printing words by their sounds), and phonography (writing words 
^y their sounds). It is also used to designate phonetic teach- 
ejimtion. -^^^^ ^^ ^r^^^ practical application of phonetics. In aU these cases, 
the use of the term phonetic as an adjective is more common ; as, phonetic 
science, phonetic print, phonetic writing, and phonetic teaching. In this 
article, these will be severally treated in the order here enumerated. 

I. Phonology, or phonetic science, is, properly, a branch of the science 

of acoustics, which embraces a consideration of the sounds used in speech, 

as well as those used in singing, and in other departments of 

Fhonology. jj^^gig^ Phonology is related, on the one hand, to physiology, 

as far as the organs of speech, and their action, are concerned; and, on the 



232 



PHOXETICS 



other, to pliilology, being now recognized by the most eminent philologists 
as lying at the very foundation of that science, and hence of much greater 
importance than any mere orthographic etymology can be. This subject 
can be best presented and understood by approaching it from the side of 
our own language, and considering the elementary sounds of 
soundT^^ that language in their natural order and relations. This will lay 
a good foundation for the study of general phonology, and for a 
comparison of the sounds of all languages. The English language contains 
nearly all the sounds needed for a full outline of phonology; and, more- 
over, in Webster's and Worcester's dictionaries (now very generally ac- 
cepted as standards of reference, — in the United States, universally 
adopted as such), there is to be found a complete analysis of these sounds 
— one in which they fully agree, though neither presents them in their 
natural order, giving them merely as the particular sounds of the letters. 
In arranging them according to the latest results of phonetic science, we 
may take these distinctions as we find them in the dictionaries, where they 
are correctly made: (1) the sixteen simple vowel sounds heard in the fol- 
lowing words: fate (same as ei in veil), fat, care, far, ask, all, what (same 
as in not); mete (same as i in pique), met, fm, note, whole [recognized 
as an English sound, but not sanctioned in orthoepy], r^^de, p?dl, ks, wrn. 
These naturally arrange themselves in the following order, with the addi- 
tion of ih and from the German to complete the scale: 



YOWELS. 



Full Vowels. 

Long, when accented. 

Brief, when unaccented. 



FRONT 
SERIES 



Stopped Vowels. 

Staccato or exploded. 

Always short in English. 



(1) 



(2) 



(S) 



pique 

i 

veil 

e 



MIDDLE 
SERIES 

kiihn 

U 
Goethe 

care her 
£6 8 



BACK 

SERIES 

rwde 
U 
note 
O 



all 



D 



far 

a 




my 



oil 

vi 



DIPHTHONGS. " 
out tune 

vu iu 



use 



The full and stopped vowels occur in pairs, and in three corresponding 
series, as shown in the following table: 



pique 

i 

veil 

e 



fin 

i 

met 

e 

care 



fat 



3d 



TJ 



kiihn Kiinste rwde p«ll 

it li u ^6 

Goethe Bcicke note whole 


her MS all what 

Q 9 X) V 



'far 

a 



ask 

a 



PHONETICS 



233 



No distinction is made in these tables between the sound of e in term 
or tin girl, and that of u in urn or in furl. These sounds, however, 
though kindred, are distinguishable, and are so marked by Webster, who 
says, " The vulgar universally, and many cultivated speakers both in Eng- 
land and America, give the e in such words the full sound of u in urge, as 
murcy for mercy, turm for term, etc. But, in the most approved style of 
pronunciation, the organs are placed in a position intermediate between 
that requisite for sounding u in. furl and that for sounding e in met, thus 
making (as Smart observes) 'a compromise between the two'." The vowel 
sounds, as arranged in the above tables, may be thus described. Starting 
from the fundamental sound, a in far (or a in ask), they branch upward 
in (1) a front series, with the tongue rising upward and forward, to i in 
pique; (2) a middle series, with the tongue rising to ii, directly upward, 
and not pushed forward or backward; and (3) a back series, with the 
tongue rising upward and backward to u in rude. The succession in the 
order of the sounds as judged by the ear, corresponds to that of the move- 
ments of the tongue, as perceived by the muscular sense. The diphthongs 
are arranged below the simple vowels according as they terminate in the 
upper front vowel i or the upper back vowel u. The relations of the full 
and corresponding stopped vowels to each other, as affected by quantity, 
may be further studied by the aid of the following arrangement of words, 
in which they respectively occur in accented and unaccented syllables (the 
double letters indicating prolonged sounds) : 

eat eternal kuAn Kunste prwde pr«dentia 



11 



II 
mate 

ee 



ee 

care 

82 ae 



•B'B 



u 



uu 



it 
i 

maternal 

e 



uu 

Goethe Bocke oak 

d 00 



met 

e 00 

clairvoyant cwr curtail aught 



carry 



dd 



cwrry 
9 



mo 



u 



v^ood 

U 

location 





spoken 


authentic 

D 



not 



part 

aa 



aa 



partake 

a 



ask 

a 



It may be observed that the stopped vowels do not, and cannot, rise 
quite so high in the scale as their corresponding full vowels; but this 
difference is reduced to a minimum in the fundamental pair, a a, and in 
the lower front pair, se 'b. 

The following is a synoptical arrangement of consonant sounds, some 
German sounds being added, [a, indicates aspirates; i^, subtonics ; n, nasals; 
I, liquids; v^ vowel consonants]: 



234 









PHONETICS 












CONSONANTS. 








LIP 


LIP- 


TONGUE 


TIP- 


TOP- 


KOOT- 






TEETH 


TEETH 


TONGUE 


TONGUE 


TONGUE 




up 






tone 


chin 


cat 


(a) 


P 






t 


ch 


C 




6e 






do 


jar 


pet 


(t) 


b 






d 


J 


g 




Bon 


if 


thin 


us 


she 


icft 


(a) 


t) 


f 


th 


S 


sh 


« 




reie 


reil 


this 


zone 


usual 


Tag 


(t) 


ID 


V 


dh 


Z 


zh 


9 




me 






no 


Benor 


siragr 


(«) 


m 






n 

let r&re 


ii 


ng 


(0 


wha,t 






\V1 




Ae 


(a) 


hw 

we 








2/6 


h 


(v) 


W 








y 





For an account of the development of the present method of indicating 
these sounds in the English language, the reader is referred to the article 
on Orthography. 

II. Phonetic Print. — The elementary sounds of the English language 
are usually represented in dictionaries by diacritical marks; but various 
methods of phonotypic notation, other than this, have been employed. 
That of Dr. Edwin Leigh has been extensively used for school purposes, 
and has attained a considerable degree of popularity. An ingenious 
system of representation approximating to the diacritical, is used in 
Shearer's Comhination Speller (N. Y., 1874). 

III. Plionography, or phonetic writing^ in its more general sense, 
would include any script in which the letters are used to denote sounds; 
but it is now appropriated, in a special sense, to Pitman's particular system 
of phonetic short-hand. It can be studied in Pitman's manuals, especially 
those of 1860 and 1865; or as it appears in the text-books of Andrews and 
Boyle (Boston, 1846); Langley (Cincinnati, 1851), Graham (N. Y., 1858), 
Ben Pitman (Cincinnati, 1855), Marsh (San Francisco, 1868), Munson 
(N. Y., 1866), and E. V. Burnz (N. Y., 1872). In connection with any 
of these (especially those prior to I860), Parkhurst's /S'tei'^op/^o^ioprr/p/^er 
(N. Y., 1852 — 76) can be used, and will give to the investigator, teacher, 
or practical reporter, the history and discussion of the various improve- 
ments, proposed or made, since 1852. — Phonography, notwithstanding 
its many advantages over the ordinary script, has made but little progress 
since that time as a general method of writing, its use, at present, being 
almost exclusively technical. Hence, it has not been generally introduced 
as a branch of instruction, except in commercial schools, or for the special 
purposes of preparing for the occupation of the reporter. 

IV. Phonetic teaching now quite generally constitutes a part of the 
lowest grade of elementary instruction, its object being to facilitate the 



PHONIC METHOD -^ PHYSICAL EDUCATION 235 

teaching of children to read. (See Piioxic Method.) By means of phonetic 
exercises, the vocal organs of children are trained to clearness and cor- 
rectness of enunciation, while the ear is cultivated so as to be 
Methods. ^-^^^ readily to distinguish sounds. At the same time, children 
necessarily acquire a better idea of the use of letters and of the sounds 
which they are employed to denote. Most educators, at the present time, 
recommend this mode of teaching; although there is some diversity in the 
manner in which it is applied. Beginning with simple words in which 
single letters are used to denote siniple sounds, and in which no silent let- 
ters occur, the child is led to perceive the use of the letters, and to associate 
with them their proper sounds, the teacher passes progressively to more 
complex and irregular combinations, until the pupil is able to analyze 
Avords into their component sounds, and state how these sounds are repre- 
sented. After such preliminary exercises, in order that the pupil may fully 
understand the relations of the sounds to each other, and be systematically 
drilled in their utterance, aU the elementary sounds must be presented 
synoptically. This is done by phonetic charts, which should ex- 
clians^ hibit (1) a logical enumeration of the elementary sounds, illus- 
trated by their use in well-chosen words; and (2) the letters of 
the alphabet with their various sounds, and diphthongal combinations. 
Yery many of the faults in articulation so frequently met with may be 
prevented or removed by persistent drilling in the elementary sounds. 
These phonetic drills may comprise exercises in the vowel sounds by them- 
selves; but the consonant sounds are often most effectively practiced in 
combinations with vowels. In teaching persons, whether children or 
adults, to pronounce a foreign language, this training is indispensable. Of 
course, it should be preceded by a careful investigation into the particular 
defects which constitute what is called the " foreign accent", so that the 
elementary sounds involved may be made the special subject of the drill. 
Phonetic analysis should not cease in the lower grades, but should, at every 
stage, constitute a part of the regular reading or elocutionary exercises. 
Like the fingers of the pianist or violinist, the vocal organs need constant 
technical exercise in order that they may perform their oiRce most effect- 
ively. The enunciation of the open vowel sounds constitutes a most im- 
portant part of vocal training. (See Yoice, Culture of the.) 

PHONIC METHOD, a term applied to a method of teaching read- 
ing, in accordance with which jDupils are taught, in pronouncing words, 
to use the sounds of the letters, instead of their names, so that they may 
at once perceive the result of combination, and thus without difficulty give 
the correct pronunciation. For example, when the pupil is required to 
pronounce the word dog, he does not say de-o-ge^ dog, but gives to each let- 
ter the proper sound, phonetically, and thus at once pronounces the word 
dog as the necessary product of the elements thus combined. This 
method is considered by teachers to possess many advantages over the old- 
fashioned way of compelling the pupils to learn the names of the letters 
of the alphabet, and then teaching them to read by spelling exercises. 
(See Orthogkaphy.) 

PHONICS. See Orthography, and Phonetics. 

PHYSICAL EDUCATION may be defined as that systematic train- 
ing of the bodily powers which tends to render them, iu the highest pos- 



236 PHYSICAL EDUCATION 

sible degree efficient in their several functions. The necessity for this 
training is generally acknowledged, as a basis for the higher departments 
. of education. Among the ancients — the Persians, the Greeks, 
Dejinition. ^^^ ^^^ Romans, especially, the highest respect was accorded 
to physical culture; and the means employed were generally well adapted 
to the purpose, although merely empirical; but, at the present time, the re- 
searches of science ought to supply a far better and more accurate basis 
for an effective system of bodily training. — Physical education looks to 
two objects: (1) to encourage a normal development of bodily powers; and 
(2) to check morbid growth. Incidentally to these, of course. 
Objects. ^YiQ preservation of health, that is, protection against disease, is 
an important object; since a condition of health is the foundation upon 
which all physical culture must rest; indeed, if children are successfully 
protected from morbid influences and disturbances, normal development 
must result. 

(1) The application of appropriate means to stimulate or guide the de- 
velopment of the bodily powers constitutes what is called physical traininrj. 
This training may be (1) general, or (2) special. Uj) to a certain 
Fhysical ^^^^ ^^i physical exercise must have for its object general develop- 
^ "^* ment; beyond that, the special purpose of the training must dic- 
tate the nature of the exercise to be employed. Military drill, it is true, 
is often employed in schools to promote general development, but there is 
very much required in military discipline that is quite unnecessary for or- 
dinary physical culture. The importance of systematic exercise has been 
considered in the articles calisthenics and gymnastics (q. v.). Such exer- 
cise, however, must not look exclusively to muscular development; but to 
the prompt use of muscular power in obedience to the dictates of mind. 
Such power systematically exercised in any given direction becomes al- 
most automatic, as is seen in the case of the skillful oarsman, rider, or 
swordsman; or in adepts in athletic games, such as those of ball and cricket. 
All such means of physical culture become of special value, as bringing the 
powers of the body under the immediate control of the will; and, hence, 
under the name athletics, they have been generally encouraged by those 
who have the direction of superior education. In the same categoiy, are 
to be placed the exercises which regard the due development of other phys- 
ical powers, as the senses, the vocal organs, the lungs, and, in a closer re- 
lation to intellectual education, the brain. Educators err greatly in for- 
getting that the brain is a physical organ, and that its exercise is subject 
to the same laws and to the same limitations as other bodily organs; and 
that, therefore, physical considerations should have a controlling weight in 
determining the means and, to some extent, the methods of intellectual 
training. (See Braix.) Many are inclined to regard the direction of phys- 
ical training as unnecessary. They think that the physical powers of 
children and youth receive, in the instinctive and irrepressible exercises 
natural to that age, a sufficient education for ordinary purposes. From 
this view arises a neglect which is fraught with serious injury. Not only 
does the individual fail to act appropriately and energetically at every 
trying period of his life; but, in most cases, his action falls somewhat below 
what is required for effective results, through want of the full co-operation 
of the bodily powei*s; and, toward the close of life, decrepitude is accelerated 



PHYSIOLOGY 237 

by the partial atrophy occasioned by imperfect development and by 
disuse. 

(2) To check morbid growth or to prevent disease, careful attention 
must be given to the surroundings of the child, particularly in school; as 
there he is subjected to constant restraint, and, hence, cannot 
arm^th ^^^rcise his natural instincts which would prompt him to es- 
cape from such surroundings. The preservation of children 
from morbid influences in school depends upon a great variety of circum- 
stances, for a full enumeration of which, see Hygiene, School. The prac- 
tical aim of physical education, under the influence of modern life, is al- 
most always intellectual. Gymnastics and calisthenics, however, indirectly 
exert a moral influence which, of itself, makes their practice desirable. 
This is that magnanimity which is produced in generous minds 
to morals ^^^ ^^® consciousness of bodily health and power, and a dispo- 
' sition to use that power worthily. A feeling of inferiority has 
always associated with it an element of immorality, which leads its posses- 
sor to acts of duplicity and meanness to preserve his equality. There is still 
another phase of physical education to be considered — that which relates 
to the joint action of the mind and body through the medium of the senses. 
(See Ear; Eye; and Senses, Education of.) The minute subdivision of 
labor characteristic of the age in which we live, by giving a 
^^^^^" utilitarian value to the cultivation of the senses is rapidly con- 
stituting this an element of increasing importance. Already, the success 
of numerous trades and employments is dependent upon a nicety of discrim- 
ination by means of the eye, the ear, the taste, or the touch; and the 
number of these is steadily increasing. The cultivation of the senses, 
therefore, is desirable from a merely utilitarian point of view; while for gen- 
eral culture, such as is required in many of the arts, its absolute necessity 
is manifest. Many considerations and interests, therefore, conspire to 
make the subject of physical education one of constantly increasing 
importance. 

PHYSIOLOGY (Gr. (pvmg, nature, and ?M-yoc, discourse), the science 
w^hich treats of vital phenomena — • as contradistinguished from anni- 
omy, which treats of the structure of living bodies and the materials 
of which they are composed. In the course of education, it presup- 
poses some preliminary knowledge of chemistry, physics, anatomy, and 
especially of microscopic anatomy, or histology; and, in turn, it pre- 
cedes the study of hygiene, or the laws of health, and that of pathology, 
or the science of abnormal function. As a science, physiology is of 
recent origin, though the name has been in use from antiquity. Like 
aU other natural sciences, as Dalton observes, " there is only 
^t^Vel ^^® means by which physiology can be studied; that is, by 
the observation of nature". It has been built up by experiment; 
and many of its most essential truths, and these in their practical results 
the most important to mankind, have been gained through vivisection. As 
the principal foundation of hygiene, it is obvious that its principles should 
be so far made an element of general education as may conduce to a just 
appreciation of nature's sanitary code. How this may best be accomplished 
School ^ ^ question .that has hardly received the attention it de- 
physiology. serves. School physiology, in many cases, consists of a smat- 



238 PICTUEES 

teririg of anatomy; in others, of a still more unsubstantial fabric of in- 
formation regarding function; or, in still others, of a blending of the two 
■with hygienic doctrines, often based not on a wide conception of biological 
truths, but on the meager knowledge gained by personal experience. The 
difficulty has always consisted in attempting to build upon too narrow a 
foundation, and that by means of an erroneous method. Thus, the attempt 
is made to teach the elements of physiology without a sufficient ground- 
work of chemistry and physics, and exclusively from books, instead of from 
practical experience in the laboratory. The results have been — as those 
of book learning and lecture teaching in natural science, without observa- 
tion and experiment, always must be — unreal and evanescent; hence, by 
such instruction the true nature of vital phenomena is never clearly appre- 
hended; and the hygienic deductions are, of course, correspondingly il- 
logical. Doubtless, a great amount of knowledge has been imparted, in 
these later days, to the people in general on this subject; but the advance 
that has been made in sanitary practice is, probably, due not so much to 
the results of school education, as to the improved education of medical 
men, and to their advice spoken and written to communities, learning by 
practical experience the penalty of infringing hygienic laws. The real 
requisite in general education on this subject appears to be, that, when a 
. sufficient foundation has been laid, a practical course of biology 

diioiogy. ^\^Q^i^ 133 employed to elucidate the general laws of life; and 
then the habit of scientific thought and reasoning, formed by such training, 
will lead to a correct application of general principles to the special condi- 
tions of human life, feome such course of biological study as A Course of 
Practical Instruction in Elementary Biology, by Huxley and Martin, 
might properly form a part of the curriculum of every collegiate institution; 
and, in all schools of a lower grade, as much preparation should be made 
for such a course as is practicable. Objective teaching, in outline, of anat- 
omy, by the dissection of the lower animals, accompanied by such simple 
practical suggestions as arise from the interpretation of the mechanical ar- 
rangements of the body, may be early commenced; but, in all cases, this 
foundation should be laid systematically, with a definite end in view, and 
by instructors who have qualified themselves to teach, by following a 
complete practical course, such as is above suggested. Teaching merely 
_ , , from text-books and by pictures, will be almost useless, because 

X ■ 00 's. superficial; and no demonstrations, even from the best models, 
can ever be so eflFective as those from actual dissections of the lower ani- 
mals. A pupil will gain a better idea of the appearances presented by his 
own organs, and of their own relations to one another, from seeing a 
demonstration of those of a rabbit or a dog, for example, than from any 
rigid, and necessarily unreal, model, however skillfully constructed and 
colored. Such models, however, admirably subserve secondary demon- 
strations. — For a list of works of reference, see Cyclopaedia of Education. 
PICTTJIIES. One of the earliest efforts of the human mind, after 
spoken language, appears to be the communication of ideas by tangible ob- 

_. jects. The use of pictures and images is common among sav- 

°*' * ages every- where. It is no less characteristic of the infant mind 

among civilized races, children being not only interested in looking at 

pictures, but, by a natural prompting, attempting to imitate them. The 



POETRY 239 

first ideas whicli tlio child takes from objects being concrete, its means of 
expressing them takes the concrete form — its first effort being, as near as 
possible, a reproduction of the objects themselves. Not till a higher devel- 
opment has been reached, is it fitted to make use of a system in which 
purely arbitrary forms are employed. This early and almost universal 
instinct, therefore, involving, as it must, the ability to understand ideas so 
communicated, suggests the peculiar fitness of this method for use in the 
instruction of children. This form of expression being attended with so 
much pleasure, it finds its natural place in the kindergarten system; and 
we find, accordingly, various exercises there for the employment of it. It 
is even extended into the ordinary school system in the shape of object 
. lessons. But this method, useful as it is at certain stages, has 
Limitations. -^^ limitations. It should not be forgotten that, with children, 
the object itself, for purposes of instruction, is always better than any 
representation of it. As the picture of an animal, for instance, is only one 
phase of the form of that animal, and does not usually take into considera- 
tion size, color, and many other essential qualities, only a very imperfect 
impression can be gained from it. This fact should suggest the limitation^ 
mentioned. These have reference principally to the end to be attained, to 
the correctness of the picture, and the number and nature of the objects 
represented. As to the correctness of the picture, little need be said; as 
modern publications, in this respect, show a constant improvement, and 
leave little to be desired. The number of objects represented in each 
picture should be limited, single figures being, at first, given; afterwards 
two or three. The objects represented, also, should be familiar things, and 
several of a kind, inasmuch as, by the contemplation of these, the child's 
conceptive faculty, or imagination, and powers of generalization are exer- 
cised. In this respect, also, the right method in primers and elementary 
books, is, as a rule, instinctively taken - — though not always. The value 
of this last restriction, at a later period, may be easily illustrated. If the 
object be to give an idea of some animal never seen — the camel, for 
instance — the task is made comparatively easy from the child's having 
seen illustrations of somewhat similar objects with which it is familiar; as 
the horse, cow, etc. It seizes at once upon the points of resemblance, and, 
immediately after, upon the points of difference, and thus makes a positive 
addition to its knowledge. But let the same child be confronted with a 
picture of a star-fish, or a printing-press, and the probability is, if it has 
never seen these or any similar objects, that it will get only a very imper- 
fect idea of either. The reason is obvious. With no previous preparation, 
it is called upon to establish in its mind an entirely new conception, solely 
from the picture, without any corresponding tangible basis in its experience. 
The result is a thwarting of the tendency to generalization — so strong with 
children always — and a confusing of the mind by an indistinct conception, 
invariably accompanied with a loss of interest. The special uses to which 
pictures are put, whether as diagrams in illustration of particular studies, 
or as part of a higher, artistic education, need not here be considered. 

POETRY, or the written expression of beauty, is an important instru- 
ment in certain departments of intellectual culture, besides aiding in the 
education of the emotions and sensibilities, and in the cultivation of taste. 
(See Esthetic Culture.) The pupil's first knowledge of written poetry 



240 POETRY 

is usually obtained from the school reader. The manner of its presentation 
there, however, is susceptible of improvement. The free use of figures of 

rhetoric, and of obsolete or unusual words and phrases, renders 
Mode of poetry inappropriate to the minds of children till after the usual 
^^tion ^odes of expression have become familiar. Its proper time for 

presentation, therefore, is when rhetoric is studied — that is, dur- 
ing the latter part of the high-school course, or in the college. Yet nothing 
is more common than to find a highly-involved passage from Shakespeare, 
or an abstruse paragraph from Wordsworth, in a reader intended for pupils 
of from ten to fifteen years of age. Some vague or half-considered idea 
that these passages are, in some way, to serve as models, by being thus 
presented, or are necessary for elocutionary purposes, is probably in the 
mind of the compiler. But what should we think of the music teacher 
who should present a symphony of Beethoven, as a model, to a beginner 
practicing the scales ? The parallel case is quite as absurd. The result is 

bad in two ways: (1) the unintelligibility, to the child, of such 
Besult. ^ poetical selection deprives it of all use as a model; and (2) the 
disgust thus occasioned becomes permanent, and leads the pupil, even in 
manhood, to avoid a reperusal of the author thus used. How many per- 
sons, of mature years, date their dislike to Milton, for instance, from an 
enforced use of his works as reading or parsing exercises in early youth ! 

The introduction of poetry into the school curriculum should 
aesiions ^^^^^^ *^^^ natural plan, the first poems used being exceedingly 

simple, containing no words beyond the vocabulary of the child, 
and treating of subjects and objects of every-day familiarity. An excel- 
lent plan would be to place, as an introductory lesson in reading, a para- 
phrase in prose of the poem to be used. In this way, the pupil, being 
possessed beforehand of the meaning of what he is approaching, is at 
liberty to give more attention to the poetical mode of expression, this being 
the principal thing to be considered; for, if the meaning were the prin- 
cipal thing, prose would be preferable — it being more direct and in more 
familiar language. The fact that rhythmical language is, in many cases, 
^ • J oi assistance to the memory, indicates its peculiar fitness for 
value, certain educational purposes. By its aid, abstract truths and 

arbitrary rules may often be fixed in the mind, in a way not 
possible by any other. Moral truths, also, may often be better retained in 
the memory by their expression in rhythmical form. The experience of 
most persons will probably furnish illustrations of this fact. There appears 

to be a limit to this use of rhyme, however, determined partly by 
rhvnw ^^^ nature of the things to be remembered, and partly by the es- 
thetic effect produced by such use. It may be said, in general, 
that all concrete ideas and relations, — those which, upon suggestion, call up 
in the mind material images — do not require the aid of rhyme to fix them 
in the memory; while ideas and relations of an essentially abstract or 
arbitrary nature, are more easily retained in the memory by a rhythmical 
expression of them. As an illustration of a violation of the first proposi- 
tion, may be mentioned a rhymed text-book on geography. In the study 
of geography, the definitions, descriptions, etc., being always accompanied 
by pictures and maps, are firmly fixed in the mind by the eye — the most 
effective of all the agents used in acquiring knowledge. To call in the aid 



PRAXIS — PRIMER 241 

of the ear, therefore, is superfluous, and tends, rather, to distraction. If 
there had been originally any vagueness of conception left by the image 
addressed to the eye, the ear might, with propriety, be called in to aid it; 
but, from the nature of things, this is impossible. The picture of a 
material object will always present to the mind a clearer idea of it, th.in 
any verbal description. A further objection, in this case, is 
obiecUon. ^^^^* *^^® rhymed version, degenerating, as it is almost sure to 
do, into grotesque doggerel, familiarizes the mind of the pupil 
with the most degraded form of poetry, and tends to unfit it for an appre- 
ciation of the higher. In regard to the second proposition mentioned 
above, it may be said that we naturally seek some short, succinct form for 
expressing generalizations, and abstract and arbitrary relations, which shall 
make them convenient for use; and that form is often found. If the poetic 
form would enable us to remember them more distinctly, and if no objec- 
tion to its use could be raised, it would be allowable; but if this form, 
besides adding little to our ability to remember, is open to the additional 
objection that it presents to the undiscriminating mind of the pupil a bad 
poetical model, it would seem that it ought not to be used. It can hardly 
be claimed that rhymed versions of the Lord's Prayer, or of the Proverbs, 
for instance — of the propositions of geometry, or of the rules of arith- 
metic, have helped us materially to learn more readily or appreciate more 
fully the truths contained in them. The very nature of some truths is 
averse to ornament; and the use of it, in such cases, should be discounte- 
nanced. A frequent result of the appreciation of the beautiful, which 
underlies all poetry, is the attempt of youth sooner or later to 
poe^'v^ write poetry. Every teacher's experience will supply instances 
of this. This inclination usually makes its appearance between 
the ages of 15 and 20, in minds that have a natural taste for beautiful 
objects, after a considerable command of language has been obtained, and 
before the realities of life have come to darken, with their shadows, the 
bright sky of youth. As not one in a hundred, however, of those who 
write verses, at this age, will become a poet, the teacher's course is plain. 
His method of cure should be, unsparing criticism, but applied in a 
kindly spirit. It will require only a few exposures of bad rhymes, false 
similes and metaphors — and of these, the most preposterous will generally 
be found to be the most cherished by the writer — to recall the would-be 
poet to a more sober and useful pursuit. 

PRAXIS [Gr. TTpa^ig, from Trpdaaeiv, to do), a particular form of 
exercise designed to aiford practice to the pupils; as a praxis for parsing 
or analysis, in teaching grammar. 

PREPARATORY SCHOOLS, schools for secondary instruction, 
in which pupils are prepared for admission to the college or university. 

PRIMARY INSTRUCTION. See Education. 

PRIMER (Lat. Ube?^ primarius, a little book containing the offices 
of the Roman Catholic Church, so called because used at prime — prima 
hora — the first hour), originally a small book of prayers, or for element- 
ary religious instruction, but. at the present time, an elementary reading- 
book of the lowest grade. The literature relating to primers, or A-B-0 
books, is very curious and interesting, some of these books having had 
great fame on account of their long and extensive use. One of the very 



242 PRIZES — PUNISHMENT 

earliest was Luther's (or Melaticlithon's) Child's Little Primer, containing 
the Lord's Prayer, etc. In 1534, a Prymer in Englyslie with certain 
prayers, etc., was printed by John Byddell; and, in 1545, King Henry 
VIII. ordered an English Form of Public Prayer, or - Primer, to be 
printed; and to be " taught, lerned, and red" throughout his dominions. 
Bienrod's primer, containing an illustrated alphabet, was the earliest 
publication of this kind in German, dating back to the middle of the 16th 
century. The horn-book was the simplest and most noted of primers. 
^See Horn-Book, and Christ Cross Row.) The Royal Primer of Great 
Britain and the New England Primer also had great fame. 
PRIZES. See Emulation. 
PROGRAMME. See School Management. 
PROMOTION. See School Management. 

PSYCHOLOGY (Gr. ipvxvi ^ovl, and loyog, discourse), the science 
which treats of the human soul and its manifestations, that is, of the phe- 
nomena of intelligence, sensibility, and will. It embraces a 
Definition, consideration of aU that pertains to the inner consciousness of 
man, whether derived from external or sensuous impression, or from the 
intuitions and activities of the soul itself, considered as the conscious ego 
animating, informing, and employing the material form, or body. " Psy- 
chology", says President Porter — in The Human Intellect (1869) — ''is 
a science. It professes to exhibit what is actually known or may be learned 
concerning the soul, in the forms of science — i. e., in the forms of exact 
observation, precise definition, fixed terminology, classified arrangement, 
and rational explanation". Psychology embraces a wider field of research 
than mental and moral philosophy, for it comprehends the whole science 
of human consciousness, and is concurrent with anthropology as far as the 
latter treats of the soul and its relations to the body. Those manifesta- 
tions of intelligence which are based upon the observation of external 
things are the peculiar field of intellectual science, but the vast field of 
intuition is the peculiar sphere of psychological investigation; for it is 
upon a careful study of the inner perceptions and the independent activities 
of the soul itself, that we must rely to obtain a knowledge of its nature 
and its relation to the Universe and its Creator. 

Education as a complete science must rest upon psychology, and can 
never reach its full development in theory and practice until psychological 
investigation has been carried beyond its present stage of prog- 
education ^^^^' and has fully developed the principles needed for the 
construction of a complete practical system. Such a system 
would constitute the art corresponding to the science which President 
Porter in the above cited definition outlines, and would place the practical 
educator in possession of the principles and rules requisite for the aid and 
guidance of the soul in developing itself in all its relations — intellectual, 
ethical, and spiritual. — This subject is in this work treated in detail in 
separate articles. (See Education, Instruction, Intellectual Education, 
Physical Education, etc.) 

PUNISHMENT is the intentional infliction of pain for the purpose 

of controlling the wiU, either to compel action or to restrain it. In educa- 

tion this is often requisite, for the sake both of the pupil and 

^-^^^ ■ of the schooL Lawlessness wou^d prevail were every individ- 



PUNISHMENT 243 

ual allowed, without restraint, to exercise his own self-will. There must 
be authority, and that authority must be recognized and enforced. (See 
AuTHOKiTY.) The i^roper discipline of the pupils requires that 
mmishment ^^'^^ should be brought under control, either by means of agen- 
* cies that will lead to self-control, as appeals to reason and con- 
science, or to other motives, such as the love of approbation, the desire to 
excel, the hope of reward, etc. A^'here these fail, appeal must be made to 
. the sense of fear, through the apprehension of mental or physical 
pain^ pain. This, as being the lowest principle to which recourse may 
be had, should be the last, and should always be employed by 
the teacher with great reluctance and with the greatest possible caution. 
(See Feak.) 

Where it can be made effectual, the best form of punishment is censure, 

which may be expressed by direct reproof, by demerit marks, or by public 

^ disgrace. Eeproof, to be effective, should be sparing, and never 

tensu7 e. administered in tones of anger or irritation, as if the teacher 

had suffered some personal grievance, and were vindicating himself rather 

than pointing out and condemning the fault of the pupil. The teacher's 

personality must be eliminated in administering punishment, except as far 

as he may make apparent his sorrow that xjunishment is necessary, and 

his regret that it is his duty to inflict it. The object must be felt by the 

pupil to be chastisement and correction, not vindictiveness, or the desire 

to avenge offended dignity or authority. Constant scolding is exceedingly 

injurious to the pupil, and of no efficacy whatever; nor can the 

^cotaing. attempt on the part of the teacher be approved to wound the 

feelings of the pupil by satirical or sarcastic remarks; for the latter 

instinctively feels that this is a mean advantage taken by the 

Sarcasm, ^g^cher both of his position and of his superior ability. 

Demerit marks have the advantage of definiteness in expressing, and in 
a way that is unanswerable, if just, — the amount of censure administered 
for neglect or wrong-doing; and, when these are required to be 
nct±T exhibited to parents, the punishment may be very severe. Forms 
of disgrace, humiliating positions, or badges, may be rendered 
exceedingly painful to some minds; while others would only be hardened 
by them. Extreme caution is required in employing this kind of punishment. 
The character of the pupil should be carefully studied, and the 
(Fs^race ^^^^^ watched. Delicacy of feeling and self-respect in the pupil 
are never to be sacrificed for a temporary advantage. Deten- 
tion and the imposition of tasks are also to be resorted to with care, or 
the school may become to the pupil a hateful place. 

As to corporal punishment, the lowest form of all, there is great dif- 
ference of opinion among educators regarding the propriety of ever resorting 
to it in schools. D. P. Page, an educator of long experience, 
Cbrporal great moral force, and singular kindliness of nature, fully ad- 
'^merd ^^^^^^ ''^l^^ necessity of corporal punishment as a last resort. 
"I do not hesitate", he says, ''to teach that corporal infliction is 
one of the justifiable means of establishing authority in the school-room. 
To this conclusion I have come after a careful consideration of the subject, 
modified by the varied experience of nearly twenty years, and by a some- 
what attentive observation of the workings of all the plans which have 



244 PUNISHMENT 

been devised to avoid its use or to supply its place". Horace Mann, one 
of the most enthusiastic advocates of moral suasion, yet recognized the 
necessity of corporal punishment in some cases. " Punishment", he says, 
"should never be inflicted except in cases of the extremest necessity; while 
the experiment of sympathy, confidence, persuasion, encouragement, should 
be repeated forever and ever". An English teacher says, "It is necessary 
for a child to learn that violation of law, whether of school, society, or 
God, brings inevitable suffering. The sense of right is so imperfectly 
developed in children, that one of the ways of impressing upon a child 
that right is right, and wrong is wrong, is by showing that suffering fol- 
lows from one, enjoyment and a sense of satisfaction from the other". 
[The Educational Reporter, London, July I., 1874.) Corporal punish- 
ment is sanctioned by Rosenkranz in Pedagogics as a System. "This 
kind of punishment", he says, "provided always that it is not too often ad- 
ministered, or with undue severity, is the proper way of dealing with will- 
ful defiance, with obstinate carelessness, or with a really perverted will, 
so long or so often as the higher perception is closed against appeal." 
Under peculiarly favorable circumstances, — a condition of things which 
may be considered ideal, that is, where the home training of the pupils of 
a school has been judicious and correct, where all have been taught, from 
their earliest years, to obey their elders and superiors; and this not by vio- 
lence and severity, but with gentleness and firmness; and moreover, where 
the teacher or teachers of the school are gifted with the same talents for 
discipline, — imder such circumstances, most educators would agree that 
a resort to corporal punishment would scarcely ever, if at all, be necessary. 
But such are not the circumstances under which children are instructed in 
school. Bain, in Education as a Science (1881) says: "Where corporal 
punishment is kept up, it should be at the far end of the list of penalties; 
its slightest application should be accounted the worst disgrace, and 
should b? accompanied with stigmatizing forms. It should be regarded 
as a deep injury to the person that inflicts it, and to those that have to 
witness it, as the height of shame and infamy. It ought not to be re- 
peated with the same pupil: if two or three applications are not enough, 
removal is the proper course". 

As to the offenses for which corporal punishment should be inflicted, 
and the proper mode of inflicting it, the following suggestions (of a practi- 
cal teacher) would probably meet with universal approval from those who 
claim that this mode of discipline is, in certain cases, indispensable: (1) It 
should be reserved for the baser faults. A child should never be struck 
for inadvertencies, for faults of forgetfulness, for irritability and careless- 
ness, or for petty irregularities. It is a coarse remedy, and should be 
employed upon the coarse sins of our animal nature. (2) When employed 
at all, it should be administered in strong doses. The whole system of 
slaps, pinches, snappings, and irritating blows is to be condemned. These 
petty disciplines tend to stir up anger, and rather encourage evil in the 
child than subdue it. (3) In administering physical punishment to a child, 
the head should be left sacred from all violence. Pulling the hair or the 
ears, rapping the head with a thimble or with the knuckles, boxing the 
ears, slapping the cheeks or the mouth, are all brutal expedients. These 
irritating and annoying practices are far more likely to arouse malignant 



r I i'lL-TE AOHEK - KE ADIN G 245 

passions, than to alleviate them. (4) The temper with which you ad- 
minister punishment will, generally, excite in the child a corresponding 
feeling. If you biing anger, anger will be excited; if you bring affection 
and sorrow, you will find the child responding in sorrowful feelings; if you 
A)ring moral feelings, the child's conscience will be excited. Anger and 
severity destroy all the benefit of punishment: love and firmness will, if 
anything can, work penitence and a change of conduct. See Cydopcedia 
of Ediicatioii, art. Corpokal Punishment. (See also Authority, Disci- 
pline, and GOVEENMENT.) 

PUPIL-TEACHER, a term used, chiefly in England, to designate a 
boy or a girl employed to perform certain duties connected with the teach- 
ing and management of a school. 

aUADRIVIUM. See Arts. 

READING, as the basis and instrument of all literary education, is 
the most important branch of school instruction. After the child has 
learned to talk, he may be taught to understand, and to give vocal ex- 
pression to, such written language as is adapted to his degree of mental 

development. To do this involves an association, in the mind, 
Frocesses. ^^ ^j^^ printed form of the word (1) with its proper sound, or 
pronunciation, and (2) with the idea which it is intended to express. In 
teaching children to read, the first of these processes requires the principal 
attention; but, as progress is made, the second constantly increases in im- 
portance. The word, and not the letters composing it, is the true element 
in reading. No one can be said to knov/ how to read who is obliged to 
stop at the word, and study its. composition, before he can pronounce it. 
The due meaning and pronunciation of every word must be immediately 
recognized by the mind, without pause or hesitation, in the act of reading. 
But the word is made up of separate characters, representing elementary 
sounds; and hence arises a diversity of methods in teaching children to 

pronoimce words. The olphabei method, or A-B-Cmetlwd (q. v.), 
Alphabet requires that the child should learn the names of all the letters 

of the alphabet, and then, by means of a spelling process, learn 
the proper pronunciation of their combinations. This process is condemned 
by most teachers of the present time, as long and tedious, as well as illogical; 
the method most generally preferred being that denominated the loorcl 

method (q. v.), by which the child learns at once to pronounce 
^^l^^i short words, and is taught the sounds and names of the letters, 

by an analj^sis of them. When the sounds of the letters are 
used instead of the names, the process has been called the phonic method 
(q. v.), which. in modern didactics, is most generally approved. Certainly, 

it is more rational to expect that a child will perceive the true 
^^eil'% pronunciation of a word through an analysis of the sounds of 

the letters, than by using their names, many of which afford no 
key to the sound. For example, if the word be cat, the child reaches the 
pronunciation at once by enumerating the sounds 7c-Si-t; while by spelling, 
he is obliged to say se-^-ie, introducing sounds entirely foreign to the word. 
In the one case, the mental association required is simple and direct; in 
the other, it is complex and indirect. It is true that, by long and diligent 



246 READING 

rote-teaching, children learn to read by the latter method; but the question 
arises, are they not to a certain extent unfitted for other instruction by so 

illogical a process ? Auxiliary to the j^honic method, and, indeed, 
tlf^d <^ic^^^^^ ^y i^^ needs, is the phonetic method, in which the absurd 

contradictions of the alphabet are removed by using the letters 
slightly modified, so as to have a character for each separate sound, and 
each sound represented by one, and only one, character. (See Orthography, 
and Phonetics.) These various methods are dictated by what may per- 
haps be called the mechanics of reading; but, in connection with that, the 
teacher must always bear in mind, that what the child is learning to pro- 
nounce is a symbol of thought; and, hence, at every stej),the pupil's under- 
standing is to be addressed. "Each sentence read", says Johonnot (in 
Principles and Practice of Teaching, N. Y., 1881), "should be the em- 
bodiment of a thought which the pupil thoroughly understands, and should 
be delivered precisely as it should be spoken. The practice of allowing 
the words, of a reading-lesson to be pronounced separately should never be 
permitted". Reading, as a part of education, has a twofold object: (1) to 

understand what is read; and (2) to give proper oral expression 
Object. ^Q •^. ^1^^^ -g ^Q gg^y^ reading is either for the purpose of gaining 
information for one's self, or for imparting information to others. To teach 
a pu])il to read properly implies far more than correct elocution. It implies 
the development of that judgment and spirit which, being brought to the 
perusal of useful books, or other reading matter, will enable the student to 
gather up information, and, in every available manner, make the realm of 
books tributary to his own mental wants. Hence, as auxiliary to reading, 
the proper meaning of words, phrases, and idioms must be taught; and 
exercises must be employed for the purpose of ascertaining to what extent 
the pupil has received correct ideas from what he has read. When the 
object is to teach the pupils elocution, the exercises should be specially 
adapted to that end. Thus, the pupil, having read in order to understand 
for himself, should be required to read the same passage for the information 
of his fellow pupils. For this purpose, it has been recommended, in class 
teaching, to permit only the pupil reading to use the book, all the others 
being required to listen; because, in this way, the pupils will be on the 
alert to hear and know the meaning of what is read, and will, besides, 
better appreciate the true end of reading; while, on the other hand, the one 
reading will endeavor to pronounce correctly, enunciate distinctly, and 

emphasize naturally. Reading-books should be constructed with 
hooks^' ^ special reference to the accomplishment of this object; and, 

hence, the lessons should be adapted, at each stage, to the mental 

status of the pupils. Moreover, the material should not consist of mere 

fragments, without any logical continuity; but should be of such a 

character as to discipline the mind in connected thinking upon suitable 

subjects, and to awaken an interest in the minds of the pupils. Usually, 

this essential object of reading in schools is defeated by the use of extracts 

from essays on difficult, abstract subjects, or from authors whose style is 

too complex, and whose vocabulary is too ponderous for children. 

^. J. Simultaneous reading is commended by some teachers as an 

* veous elocutionary drill, as being useful (1) to impart habits of distinct- 

exercise. ness of enunciation, (2) to remove the habit of too rapid or too 



RECESSES — RECITATION 247 

slow a style of reading, (3) as means of voice culture for elocution. — (See 
Elocutiox, and Voice.) 

BECESSES. See Hygiene, School, and School Management. 
RECITATION, a term used in American colleges and schools, to 
denote the rehearsal of a lesson by pupils before their instructor, or the 
repetition of something committed to memory. The manner in 
^!di!ct ^^^^^. ^^^ teacher should conduct the daily recitations of his 
recitations. ^^^^ ^^ ^ matter of very great importance, since apparently 
* perfect recitations may be gone through with which not only 
have little educative value, but may even be productive of positive 
harm to the mind of the pupil. The surest guide in this respect, is that 
which is derived from a consideration of the essential meaning of the word 
education, no method of recitation having any value which does not keep 
constantly in view the development of the pupil's mental powers. It 
should always be remembered by the teacher that the supreme object of the 
recitation is to accustom the pupil, by daily practice, to use the faculties 
of which he is possessed. Many a so-called recitation results, by too much 
explanation on the part of the teacher, in a reversal of the functions of 
the teacher and the class — the former reciting to the latter, instead of 
the latter to the former. The passive attitude of mind in which pupils 
listen to a long explanation is the very attitude from which they need to be 
roused. There are two stages in the development of a mental power as 
produced by the exercises of the class room: (1) the knowing what to say; 
and (2) the saying of it. The first stage the pupil is supposed 
development.^^ have reached by the study of the lesson; the second and most 
' important one, is not passed through by the pupil in the case 
above supposed. Of far greater service is it, therefore, to the pupil, to be 
allowed to state the result of his study in his own language, halting and 
imperfect though it be, than to compel him to listen to an exposition by 
the teacher. Under the first condition, it will be apparent, at every step, 
whether he really understands his lesson; and, if he does, every day will 
add to the copiousness of his vocabulary, and his ease of mental action, 
and give to his recitation its highest educative result; while, under the 
second — the condition of a "passive recipient", — there wiU always 
be apparent to every discerning person, an inexact apprehension of the 
thought presented, a certain degree of insincerity, strengthened into a 
mental habit through fear of ridicule, and mental powers "rusting in 
disuse". Even apt pupils, under such conditions, will become, at best, 
theorists or dreamers — critics, ready to pass judgment upon others' 
performances, but powerless to act for themselves. The utmost that can 
be claimed for this method is, that a single faculty, that of mem- 
Memory. ^^^ ^^^ -^^^^^ cultivated; while this cultivation has been ac- 
complished not only by the neglect, for the time being, of the other 
powers, but at their expense; since the pupil is daily becoming confirmed 
in the idea that they are properly exercised, and, by pursuing all future 
studies in the same way, acts to their permanent injury. 

It is not intended by this to discountenance the explanation of those 

difficult points, which will always occur, sometimes through a feebleness 

Expla- ^^ the pupil's understanding, and at others through a failure of 

nations, the text-book to supply a link necessary to the continuity of 



248 RECITATION 



^ 



thought. Such explanations are legitimate, and should be made in 
language suited to the pupil's comprehension; the most thoughtful edu- 
cators agreeing in this, that one of the gravest errors on the part of the 
teacher is an explanation in terms so unfamiliar as to be unintelligible, or 
so as to leave on the mind of the pupil only a vague and unsatisfactory- 
impression. One of the most conspicuous merits of an able teacher is his 
ability to explain, in concise and simple language, the difficulties which 
necessarily beset the paths of his pupils. But it must always be borne in 
mind that one of the greatest merits of a recitation is to compel the pupil 
to discover and present for himself the difficulties which he has en- 
countered. 

The method of simultaneous reciiaiion is open to the objection that 
by it the errors of backward pupils — and those, therefore, who are most 
in need of instruction — are concealed under the readiness of the more 

forward. The result usually anticipated from this method, 

Simulta- {^ g,^ ^ quickening of the mental powers of backward pupils 

recitation ^^^^^^ ^^^ ^P^^^ ^^ emulation, does not appear in practice. Says 

an eminent teacher, "Simultaneous recitation, may sometimes 
be useful. A few questions thus answered may serve to give animation to 
a class, when their interest begins to flag; but that which may serve as a 
stimulant must not be relied on for nutrition. As an example of its use- 
fulness, I have known a rapid reader tamed into due moderation by being 
put in companionship with others of slower speech, just as we tame a 
friskful colt by harnessing him into a team of grave old horses. But aside 
from such definite purpose, I have seen no good come of this innovation". 
Though this method is resorted to often from necessity in large schools, its 
operation should be carefully watched. It is open, also, to the objections 
common to all rote teaching, the answer committed to memory from the 
book being never so sure an indication of the pupil's apprehension of the 
meaning, as his answer, before the class, in his own language. This latter 
furnishes not only an accurate register of the pupil's real progress, but is 
a mental exercise of the highest value, since it leads to accuracy of concep- 
tion and expression, and increases the power of continuous thinking. (See 
Concert Teaching.) 

The first requisite for skillfully conducting a recitation is a thorough 
preparation by the teacher for the particular lesson he is to hear, so that 

he may be able to follow each step taken by the pupil, and may 
Prepara- stand ready, at any moment, to supply ithe needed word in 
7eacherf ^^^^i^^ ^^^^ pupil is striving to embody his thought. This word, 

in case the pupil's conception of the idea is correct, but its ex- 
pression unfamiliar, will usually be some simple generic one for which 
the special or technical word may properly be substituted by the teacher. 
Another point to be remembered is the order in which the different parts 

of a subject are presented. "Where these parts depend upon 
vresen- ^^^^ other by a natural progression, as they frequently do, a 
tation. skillful teacher will so order the recitations of a class that those 

parts of the subject which are the natural stepping-stones to 
other parts, shall be presented first, such an arrangement conducing 
powerfully to a correct comprehension of the subject as a whole. In some 
studies — in the natural and exact sciences, almost always — this method 



KELIGIOUS EDUCATION 249 

is absolutely necessary; but, while in other branches its value is not so ap- 
parent, the advantage to be derived from its adoption is generally con- 
siderable. 

A thorough comprehension by the pupils of the subject under con- 
sideration Avill insure the maintenance of three other conditions necessary 

to success in teaching, and usually quite strenuously insisted on 
Unswn'of ^^ ^'^i^^^'^ *^i^ the subject; namely, animatlou, atteniipn, and a 
the subject. ^^'^^^'<'"<^^ ^one. AVhen pupils understand what they are recitiug, 

their attention and animation are, by that fact, made certain; 
and a natural tone is instinctively adopted. In youth, the appetite for 
new truths is so eager, the exultant feeling which accompanies the con- 
quest of difticulties is so keen, that the reflection of this in the voice and 
inanner of the pupil is a matter of certainty. Indeed, their opposites, — 
inattention and want of animation, are generally considered by educa- 
tional writers as an indication of a want of comprehension — as the sure 
test by which the teacher may, at any moment, judge of the success of his 

instruction, "^rhe length of recitations has been more carefully 
recUations.^^^^!^^^^^^^ during the past few years than ever before, the 
' weight of authority having constantly inclined to a diminution 
of the time considered proper for this purpose only a generation ago. 
Currie, for example; considers that fifteen minutes is the proper medium 
for classes of very young children, twenty being the maximum ; while half 
an hour is the average for classes generally, the fixing of the attention for 
a longer period not being attended with profit. In classes of older 
children, and in advanced instruction, the time of recitation may, of course, 
be considerably prolonged beyond these limits, the principle, however, 
being still carefully observed. The following is the view of a recent writer: 
" The best results are secured within the following limits: (1) Primary 
school, from 10 to 20 minutes; (2) Grammar school, from 20 to 30 
minutes; (3) High school, from 30 to 40 minutes; (4) College, from 40 to 
60 minutes". — D. P. Page says on this subject: "As a motive for every 
teacher to study carefully the art of teaching well at the recitation, it 
should be borne in mind that then and there he comes before his pupils 
in a peculiar and prominent manner; it is there his mind comes specially 
in contact with theirs, and there that he lays in them, for good or for evil, 
the foundations of their mental habits. It is at the recitation in a pecul- 
iar manner that he makes Ids mark upon their minds; and as the seal 
upon the wax, so his mental character upon theirs leaves its impress 
behind". 

RELIGIOUS EDUCATION is that which has for its special object 
the cultivation of that faculty of the human soul by means of which it is 

enabled to realize the existence and constant presence of the 
Definition. Deity, to know Him, and to commune with Him in worship and 
prayer. Some have designated this the religious sentime^ii; but strong 
exception has been taken to that term, as belittling the basis of religion in 
the human soul. An experience of human nature, in its various degrees 

of culture, shows that there are what may be called religious 

Religious ji^tuitions, common to all minds of whatever grade of develop- 

sen imen . j^^^^^. ^^^ ^^1^,1 while these may prompt to worship, yet, without 

religious instruction, they can lead only to superstitious and debasing prac- 



250 EELIGIOUS EDUCATION 

tices. The religious or spiritual instinct does not necessarily involve any 
act of the intellect; for those whose intellectual education and endowments 
are quite inferior, often show a surprising degree of spiritual insight 
and religious fervor. This fact, however, does not supersede the ne- 
cessity of appealing to the understanding in imparting knowledge of those 
religious truths which have been communicated by divine revelation; but, 

in receiving these truths, the intellect assumes the attitude of 

Intellect, ^^m^ rather than of inquiry; that is to say, having become 

satisfied of the authenticity, or the authority, of the source whence these 

truths, or dogmatic teachings emanate, it does not exercise its powers to 

establish their validity, but only to conceive them in their true import and 

relations. Hence, the intellect is not to be cultivated by means 

Office of of religious instruction ; although its exercise cannot wholly be 

education dispensed with. The specific office of religious education is 

thus twofold: (1) to cultivate the religious instincts; and (2) 
to impart religious truth. The one is accomplished by means of devo- 
tional exercises; the other, by dogmatic teachings. In the first stages of 
religious education, appropriate exercises constitute almost the only 
agency needed, nothing but the simplest religious truths being requisite 
(such as are usually contained in the catechism) ; but, in the more ad- 
vanced period of culture, the importance of dogmatic instruction increases. 
Simple prayers and hymns, with just enough teaching to enable the child 
to realize their full significance, are the usual and the most effective means 
of exercising the religious faculty. It must, however, be borne in mind, 

that the mere saying of a prayer, or the singing of a hymn, 
^'<^y6rs. ^^^Y\ not necessarily give this exercise, any more than merely 
committing to memory a definition or a rule will exercise the intellect. 
The mechanical repetition of prayers, in religious education, is just as 
useless as rote-teaching in intellectual education. By an inattention to 
this principle on the part of parents and religious teachers, no doubt, 
many children become disgusted with religious devotion, while others 
imbibe the notion that religion is only a matter of forms and ceremo- 
nies, or the repeating of the catechism. In either case, the religious 
instinct becomes dormant for the want of due exercise. 

The relation of moral and religious education should be carefidly studied. 
In brief, it may be said that the former deals with the relations which man- 

kind sustain to each other; and the latter, with those which man 

rd[(Hous ^^ ^ spiritual being sustains to the Infinite Spirit, the Creator 

education. ^^^ Preserver of all things. In the one, the principle addressed 

is that of conscience (q, v.), the sense of right; in the other, it is 
the religious principle, the spiritual instinct, by which man is brought into 
communion with his Maker. (See Moral Education.) In a certain sense, 
these two departments of education are independent, for conscience oper- 
ates independently of religion; but a religious sanction is the stron<Test 
foundation for moral precepts. For this, the Christian revelation affords 
the fullest authority, the " first and great commandment" being to love 
God; and the second, " to love thy neighbor as thyself". The several 
departments of education are not to be divorced from one another, but all 
are to be carried on together, so as to produce a harmonious development 
of character. (See Harmony of development.) 



REWARDS 251 

In imparting religious instruction, the same principles are to be applied 
as in intellectual education, as far as language is the vehicle of the 
instruction. Yery much of the religious teaching given in the 
iblnelhodl. Sunday-school is of no value, because of the neglect to observe 
* these principles. Committing to memory formulated dogmas, 
verses from the Bible, doctrinal lessons, etc., without any proper apprecia- 
tion of their significance, can be of little service; and in some cases may do 
positive harm. Oral instruction plays a most important part in this kind 
of teaching; and Bible expositions, when clear, definite, and illustrative, 
always prove the most effective as well as the most attractive means of 
instruction. In the effort to avoid sectarianism, the secularization of the 
common schools in the United States has been carried to the extreme, and 
religious education has been too much neglected. It is well said by Bald- 
Avin, in The Art of School Management [^ . Y ., 1881), that "society in 
its protest against bigoted ecclesiasticism and clerical control in education, 
rushes to the other extreme — non- religion. AU agree that sound morality 
must be made the very sub-basis of an educational system. But how 
shall we build up moral character, if we exclude from our schools God, the 
Bible, responsibility, future life ?" 

REWARDS, as an instrument of family or school discipline, are 
benefits or privileges conferred to incite children to weU-doing. Primarily, 
the offer of a reward, as an incitement to effort on the part of 
Ihey appeal ^^^ P^i^' appeals to hope, as punishment does to fear-, but 
' there are other elements of individual character also addressed, 
depending on (1) the nature of the reward offered, and (2) the individuality 
of the pupil. Thus, the pupil who is particularly fond of praise, if offered 
a valuable gift as an inducement to do right, would strive to obtain it as a 
striking token of his teacher's approval; while one who was naturally ac- 
quisitive, or eager for gain, would regard only the intrinsic value of the 
reward. Hence, in one case, the pupil's approbativeness would be stimu- 
lated; and, in the other, his acquisitiveness; but in neither would the sense 
. of duty be cultivated. The necessity of exercising great care in 
Caution, (^ffgpf^g rewards will, therefore, be obvious. While an appeal to 
hope as an incentive to do right, is in most cases, if not always, preferable 
to an appeal to fear; yet, it must be borne in mind that rewards as well as 
punishments constitute only a temporary expedient in the discipline of 
children, and should, as soon as possible, give place to a direct appeal to 
conscience, or the sense of right. (See Conscience.) When rewards are 
offered to a number of pupils, to be conferred upon those who excel all 
the others, they become prizes, and are liable to all the objections 
re% r^s ^^^*^^ hsiXQ been urged against the prize system; but when 
' rewards (premiums), whether gifts of money, books, pictures, 
or other articles of value, or merely tickets or certificates of merit, are 
offered to all who reach a certain specified standard of merit, either in 
study or behavior, these objections are obviated; as, although the mercenary 
spirit may still be addressed, there is not the same liability to injustice, or 
the same cause of envy and jealousy. Rewards may, however, consist 

, . merely of special privileges conferred upon meritorious pupils; 

Privileges, g^^^^ ^g dismissal before the usual time for closing school, 
permission to occupy some post of honor or authority in connection with 



252 EHETORIC 

the management of the school or class, or to engage in some special sport 
or recreation planned by the teacher, as a means of encouraging well-doing. 
All these, doubtless, have their place in a proper scheme of school discipline; 
and, when used with discrimination, are beneficial. 

A system of rewards has been objected to as appealing to the lower, 
rather than to the higher, motives; but an educator must not be led astray 
by any transcendental view of human nature. He must rec- 
Oojections. Qg^].^^^ i\^q moral imperfections of his pupil, and strive to lift him 
gradually to a higher plane of thought and action. In this connection, it 
has been properly remarked, " whatever may be possible in the mature 
man, in the line of that sublime abstraction, virtue is its own reward, the 
child is neither equal to such abstractions, nor are they demanded of him. 
They may, it is true, be gradually wrought by instruction into the body of 
his thought, for the sake of their ultimate effect on his principles as a 
man ; but, embraced, as he is, in a world of perceived realities, and only 
capable of attaining the subtler ideals by passing to them through the fine 
gradations of a progressively reduced and sublimated reality, it is absurd 
and tyrannous to rob him of the stimulus, guidance, and aid of proper 
rewards as outward realities foreshadowing the ideal of absolute virtue, 
and rendering possible both its conception and attainment". 

KHETOmC (Gr. pij-opiKi], art of oratory) was originally applied to 
that branch of study in which students were trained for public speaking. 
. In Greece and Rome, the orator was directly the most powerful 
of rTeioric ^^P^^^^^'^^ of truth and opinion. As a teacher, as well as a 
* persuader, his influence was, to a great extent, confined to his 
hearers; and eloquence was, therefore, in the greatest request. But, even 
in the writings of the three greatest of the ancient rhetoricians, — Aris- 
totle, Cicero, Quintilian, there is evidence that rhetoric embraced com- 
positions not intended for delivery in public. In modern times, rhetoric 
as an art treats of all composition, whether spoken or written. It has 
been well defined as the aii of discourse, and discourse itself as " the 
capacity in man of communicating his mental states to other minds by 
means of language". It embraces poetry as well as prose "because", as 
Campbell says, "the same medium, language, is made use of; the same 
general rules of composition, in narration, description, and argumentation, 
are_ observed; and the same tropes and figures, either for beautifying or 
invigorating the diction, are employed by both. The versification is to 
be considered as an appendage rather than a constituent of poetry". In the 
most recent treatises on rhetoric, elocution, or the art of delivery, has been 
omitted. Day very justly says, "that this mode of communication is not 
essential. The thought may be conveyed by the pen or by the voice. 
Elocution, or the vocal expression of thought, is not. accordingly, a neces- 
sary part of rhetoric". In Whately's treatise {Elements of Rhetoric), 
however, a work considerably used by students, a large part is devoted to 
elocution. 

It has often been observed that there must have been orators before 

there were rules in oratory; and this is often used as an argument for 

undervaluing the study of rhetoric, just as kindred arguments 

a study. ^^^ advanced against the study of logic and grammar. But 

ther§ can be no question that immense progress has been made 



EHETORIC 253 

through the critical study of writers of standard reputation by comparing, 
discriiuinating, and deciding on, their faults and graces, thus teaching us 
what to avoid, and what to emulate. In its best sense, rhetoric presup- 
poses an acquaintance with logic — the science and art of reasoning; 
because conviction and persuasion are two of the great objects present in 
the minds of speakers and writers. It also requires an acquaintance with 
grammar, as teaching the proper arrangement of words and sentences. 
Rhetoric may be regarded from two points of view: (1) as a purely critical 
study; and (2) as the constant practice of an art. To the extent that either 

of these views becomes more prominent in the teacher's mind, 
Jloto to ^^Yl the character of his instruction be affected. It is quite 
qarded. possible to prepare students to recite well in the statement of 

principles and definitions; and yet the same students may be 
very deficient in the development or expression of spoken or written 
thought. In the celebrated treatise of Blair, Lectures on PJietoric and 
Belles- Lettres, taste and style are so treated as to occupy a very large part 
of the subject. It is largely so with Campbell's PMlosopliy of Rhetoric. 

Whately drew particular attention to the subject of invention; 
elonP^^^' but he follows style with a chapter on elocution. The practice, 

at present, which seems to be increasing in favor with teach- 
ers, is to omit elocution, or the training in mere delivery, and to ex- 
tend the importance of invention even beyond that assigned to it by 
"NThately. The two great divisions of rhetoric are thus invention and 
style. There can be no question as to the importance of inveiition in 
rhetoric. The arrangement of the thoughts according to their logical 
dependence must be the foundation of the art of discourse. Good thinking 
must always precede good writing. The office of invention is to train the 
pupil to habits of correct thinking. It does more than this; it seeks to sup- 
ply the thought. Thus, invention is naturally divided into two parts, — 
the supplying of the thought, and its proper arrangement; and of these 
two divisions, the second is dependent on the first. It may, however, be 
doubted, whether invention can be properly studied at the early age when 
pupils are usually required to study rhetoric. In many of its steps, it is 
essentially logical, and presupposes an acquaintance with that subject, • — 
and this again demands some considerable maturity of mind. The prepara- 
tion of arguments, or the art of influencing the will by discourse, is a power 
the development of which goes on past middle age; but it is a power that 
cannot be successfully trained in very early years. The chief danger in 
teaching this particular division of rethoric, is that it may be made too 
scientific. There are few young minds so trained, or of such native vigor, 
as to be capable of dwelling long, and with benefit upon even well enunci- 
ated truths and definitions; but, even where it is insisted on and contmued, 
the results are not always beneficial. 

The second grand division of rhetoric, style, deals more particularly with 
the form of the thought. Perhaps no word has given more difficulty to 

define. Without speech, "thought is not possible in reality". 

Style. Though so endlessly variable in its form, so subtle as almost to 

defy minute analysis, so subject to the moods of thought, and yet so plastic 

as to conform to its most sinuous and involved movements, we soon realize 

by a little study, how completely it is a part of the thinking. The thought 



254 ROTE -TEACHING 

and the style are thus seen to be one living body. As a subject of study, 
it is that part of rhetoric which has always created and maintained the 
greatest interest in the minds of young students. Treating of the form of 
the sentence, and also of its component words, it depends, to some extent, 
on grammar, and may be said to follow it, in a natural order of study. It 
is, therefore, to young minds more suitable than the other division — 
invention. The practice which it requires in the substitution of words, the 
inversion of sentences from grammatical to rhetorical forms, the use of 
rhetorical figures, the expansion and contraction of language, furnishes a 
constant stimulus to mental exertion. Such exercises in style show the 
student how powerfully the thought is influenced by the vehicle of 
thought, how it may be modified by the substitution of a clearer word, 
or remarkably affected by a different position of the same words. 

The advantage of sentential analysis in the careful study of style can 
scarcely be overrated. The arrangement of words, phrases, and clauses, 
peculiar to the great English writers, affect most powerfully the 
Sentential ^^^.^^ ^^ ^j^^ thought, and are open to investigation through this 
* analysis. The kind of sentences they use, and the variety in 
which they indulge, give that harmony of movement so indescribably 
pleasing. We, thus, see from what arise the clearness and greatness of 
Hume, the energy and brilliancy of Macaulay, the grace of Irving, the 
manly vigor of Sydney Smith, the philosophic calmness of Helps, the in- 
comparable plasticity and fire of Byron's prose. Perhaps no part of rhet- 
oric offers a finer field for both teacher and student than the application 
of sentential analysis to an investigation of the striking peculiarities in the 
style of great writers. 

In no branch of study, is there greater necessity for abundance of 
practice on the part of the student. In none is there greater necessity 
that the student, and not the teacher, should do the chief part of the work. 
The value of rhetoric, as a branch of study, is to be tested by its 
vractice P^^'^^^^ical utility, by what it contributes towards developing 
clearness, force, and beauty of expression in language. Any 
thing else, however scientific, in this branch must prove to the young stu- 
dent a comparatively barren and irksome task. In this light, the constant 
application of a few simple principles to the criticism of great writers is an 
admirable part of the training. In Blair's Lectures on JRhetoric, there is 
a series of papers from Addison illustrating this view; and it is to be 
doubted whether modern treatises on rhetoric, aiming at a more philo- 
sophic treatment of the subject, while they have gained in scientific 
arrangement, may not have lost some of this critical training. Accuracy, 
as well as force of expression, purity, propriety, grace, are, to most stu- 
dents, the result of constant, careful practice, combined with criticisms on 
distinguished writers. 

ROTE-TEACHING, or Teaching: t>y Rote (Fr. route, road, 
whence routine) , a method of giving instruction by means of constant repe- 
tition, particularly of certain forms of speech, with little or no attention to 
their meaning. Hence, such teaching is often described as mechanical, that 
is, impressing the memory through the ear and the eye, but not exercising 
the understanding. Rote-teaching may be regarded as an abuse of the 
principle of repetition. (See Association, and Concert Teaching.) 



i 



SCHOOL - SCHOOL FURNITURE 255 

SCHOOL (Lat. schola, from Gr. axoh], leisure, especially for literary 
studies, and hence applied to the place where such studies were pursued, — 
a school), a term now applied to an educational establishment, particu- 
larly of the primary or secondary grade; as a primary school, a grammar 
school, a high school, a classical school, etc. Schools of the secondary 
grade are, however, often designated academies, seminaries, etc. The 
term school is not applied to an institution of learning of the superior 
grade, but institutions for scientific or professional instruction are usually 
called schools; as theological schools, medical schools, law schools, polytech- 
nic schools, art schools, etc. 

SCHOOL ECONOMY, a general term applied to the collective body 
of principles and rules by which the keeping of schools is regulated. In its 
widest sense, it embraces all that pertains to the construction and furnish- 
ing of the school-house, the proper apparatus to be employed in carrying 
on the processes of instruction, the various modes of school organization 
and administration, including a consideration of the length and arrange- 
ment of school sessions and terms, the proper records to be kept, the course 
of study, programme of daily exercises, and the modes of discipline, man- 
agement, and instruction. 

SCHOOL FURNITURE. Under this head Avill be considered 
(1) desks and seats; (2) platform; (3) blackboard; and (4) miscellaneous 
furniture and apparatus. 

In the matter of health, desks and seats are, perhaps, the articles of 
the greatest importance in the school room. Notwithstanding their im- 
portance, however, as deciding the pupil's position for several 
seat^ hours of the day, and thus determiniug, in a great measure, his 
future health and bearing, school authorities are not yet 
entirely agreed as to their style, dimensions, or arrangement; each civilized 
country using its own, on account of some peculiar advantage, the relative 
value of which is determined by observation from its own stand-point. 
The first consideration, in the construction or arrangement of desks and 
seats, should have regard to their influence upon the health of the pupils; 
the second, to the convenience of the teacher and pupils, in the adjusta- 
bility of the desk and seat for different exercises, or for purposes of school 
government, which last would be determined principally by the arrange- 
ment, and the means afforded for facilitating the entrance or exit of the 
pupils. Of the comparative advantages of different styles of desks or 
seats, it is not necessary here to sj)eak, the subject being treated exhaust- 
ively in the works referred to at the end of this article. The books that 
have been written on this subject in different countries form almost a 
library of themselves. Perhaps the best form yet devised is that described 
in the report of M. Buisson, French commissioner to the Exposition at 
Vienna in 1873, which was selected for sj^ecial commendation, after an 
examination of all the styles there presented. It is known as the Bapte- 
rosses desk and seat, from the name of the inventor, who designed it for 
use in his factory at Briare. It has recently been introduced into the 
normal school at Auteuil. The chair is single, the seat being of wood, 
round or square in shape, and supported by an iron leg which slides up or 
down in a sheath, or hollow cylinder, the base of which is firmly screwed 
to the floor. The leg and sheath together form the support of the seat^ 



256 SCHOOL FURNITURE 

wHcli is checked at any height, in its upward or downward motion, by a 
thumb -screw. The back of the chair is of the ordinary pattern, and is 
slightly inclined. The desk is stationary, and is supported by a cast-iron 
upright. Its upper surface is divided into two parts in the usual manner 
— a narrow horizontal part at the, back, and a sloping part, much 
larger, and nearer the pupil. It is provided either with a lid which 
converts the desk into an ordinary box, or, if the top is not movable, 
with compartments which open laterally. A small leaden pipe, extending 
the whole length of the desk, under the horizontal part of the upper sur- 
face, serves as an inkstand. It is provided with a vent at each end, 
secured by a copper cap, and, opposite the pupil, is pierced to receive a 
small copper funnel of sufficient size to allow only the point of the 
pen to enter. By this arrangement, the pupil can neither dip his pen too 
deeply, so as to get too much ink, nor upset his inkstand. Near the 
foot of the leg of the desk is a foot-rest, which may be raised or lowered 
by the same device of slide and thumb-screw that is used for the seat. 
The thumb-screws used on the chair and desk are so arranged that they 
cannot be turned except by a key, which is kept by the teacher. The 
principal advantage of this desk is, that it can be adapted to pupils of 
different heights; its other recommendations are obvious. An improve- 
ment, perhaps, might be made by providing the desks with two supports 
instead of one, thus securing a firmness which desks supported by one 
central pillar do not usupJly have. The single desk should be 2 feet long, 
from 25 in. to 29 in. high, and 18 in. wide; the double desk should be 4 
feet long, the other dimensions being the same as those of the single desk. 
The seats should be from 12 in. to 16. in high. Recitation seats as well 
as desk seats should be provided with backs. It should not be forgotten, 
however, that no arrangement of desk or seat, however ingeniously 
adapted to the pupil's comfort, can take the place of that frequent change 
of position which is a necessity of his being. Of the dimensions of desks 
and seats, Robson says, after a careful comparison of the works of Zwey, 
Falk, Frey, Cohn, Kleiber, and Virchow, " The weight of opinion is to the 
effect that the height of the seat should correspond to the length of the 
scholars leg, from the knee to the sole of the foot. There must be no 
stretching of muscles; therefore, the sole of the foot must rest on the floor 
or upon some flat surface. If the seat be too high, the swinging of the 
foot in the air causes a compression of the blood-vessels and nerves of the 
hinder part of the leg and knee; if it be too low, the thighs of the scholar 
are pressed against his stomach to the disadvantage of health. * * * In 
order to prevent the scholar's slipping forward, the seat should be slightly 
declined backward. The height of the desks should be so arranged, that 
the under part of the arm may rest comfortably on the desk-top, and that 
the powers of vision may not be strained, or, in other words, that the 
normal distance of vision may be preserved. Desks which are too low cause, 
by the bending of the scholar, a pressing on the chest and lower part of the 
body; while those which are too high cause the right shoulder to be so 
lifted, as to remove the upper part of the arm so far from the body, that 
the lower arm cannot be laid flat on the table, thereby causing the arm 
to be unsteady and easily tired". Much ingenuity has been exercised in 
devising scats capable of transformation into a variety of forms. The 



SCHOOL FURNITURE 257 

tendency in this respect is frequently towards a mechanism so complicated 
that it defeats its own object by becoming easily disarranged ; and, even 
if this were not the case, many of the transformations will usually be 
found to be useless. The really desirable changes of form are very few. 
Says an eminent educator: " If seats could be so contrived as to remain 
firm when placed horizontally, to allow the pupil to lean forward easily to 
write upon his desk, and then could be made to have an inclination back- 
ward when the pupil desires to read or study, it would add much to his 
comfort in sitting, and something, perhaps, to the comeliness of his 
figure". Concerning the distance of the seat from the desk, a considerable 
difference of opinion exists, some teachers considering only one inch neces- 
sary, others as much as three. On this point Dr. Wiese says: " It is, 
therefore, desirable, that the inner edge of the desk should be distant from 
the front of the seat only about one inch". Robson says: " The scholar 
who sits too far from the desk, either bends too much, and thereby hurts 
his chest and eyes, or he glides too far forward on his seat, and so gets an 
unsteady position. ^ * * It is recommended that the vertical distance 
from the desk to the seat-top should be the length of the fore-arm, or 
one-sixth the size [height] of the body of the scholar. Too great a distance 
encourages crooked growth; for the scholar, while writing, has his body 
weighing on one arm, instead of having the arm naturally resting on his 
body. If the difference in height between the desk and the seat be too slight, 
then the chest sinks, and the back is bent out so as to encourage stoop- 
ing". Of the arrangement of desks, many methods have been advocated, 
and different ones prevail in different countries ; but the weight of author- 
ity seems to be in favor of seating the pupils in pairs, this method being 
economical as to space, and more advantageous for both teacher and pupil 
in the efficient carrying out of the daily exercises. Its superiority, also, 
in the matter of ingress and egress of the pupils is manifest. The arrange- 
ment of desks in regard to space and light has been considered in the 
article Hygiene, School. Many other considerations present themselves 
in this connection, the chief of which are the following: the form and 
height of the back of the seat; its attachment to, or independence of, the 
desk immediately behind it; the variation in the height of seats and desks 
as arranged on the same level for pupils of different sizes; the sloj^e of the 
floor, or its construction in steps, for the same purpose; the movable desk 
or seat as compared with the stationary; the mountings of desks and seats 
on casters; the varying slope of the desk-top for different purposes; the 
space between the desks; the breadth of aisles, etc. These are aU consid- 
ered, however, in works specially written for the purpose; and the merits 
of each for different purposes are fully set forth. 

The platform is now considered highly desirable, if not indispensable, 
in the school room. On all public occasions, whether of examination or 
exhibition, it is indispensable; while there are many occasions in 
Platform. ^^^ usual routine of the school, when it is exceedingly useful. 
It should be not less than 6 feet wide, and 15 inches high, and should be 
divided into two levels or risers. In schools in which all the exercises are 
conducted in one room, closets for the storing of school apparatus are often 
placed at each end of the platform. Recitation rooms are usually fitted up 
without "platforms, the teacher's desk standing on the floor. 



258 SCHOOL-HOUSE 

At the back of the platform, against the wall, and facing the school or 
class, is placed the blackboard. It should extend the entire length of the 
platform, should be at least 4 feet wide, and extend to within 
Blackboard. ^]^pgg fgg^ Qf ^j^g floor. It should be provided with a frame all 
around, and a trough at the lower edge for the chalk, and to catch dust, 
and should have hooks, on which pointers may be hung. The material of 
blackboards is of three kinds: wood, slate, and a kind of slate-surface 
made to lay directly on the wall. The last, by combining in a medium the 
best qualities of the two others, is the most desirable. (See Blackboard.) 

The principal consideration under the head of furniture and apparatus 
is not so much the comparative values of different articles, but what articles 
are indispensable or, at least, highly necessary. Among these, 
Furniture mg^y ^^g mentioned a clock, a small bell for the calling and dis- 
.i!!!.7,/ o missing of classes, chairs for visitors, closets or wardrobes, 
' provided with wrought-iron hooks and pegs, a thermometer, sets 
of maps and charts, a terrestrial globe, an abacus, or numeral frame, and 
a collection of miscellaneous articles to be used in giving object lessons. 
The extent to which the articles desirable for the school room have been 
added to, and perfected, both in the United States and on the continent of 
Europe, is remarkable; the list given above, however, furnishes a tolerably 
complete outfit for a primary school. One consideration remains to be 
insisted on; namely, the exercise of good taste in the selection of furniture 
and articles intended to be in constant sight of the pupils. On this subject, 
the architect of the London School Board remarks: *' The furniture of the 
school room should be graceful in form, and good in quality and finish. 
Children are particularly susceptible of surrounding influences, and their 
daily famiHarization with beauty of form or color, in the simplest and most 
ordinary objects, cannot fail to assist in fostering the seeds of taste, just as 
daily discipline tends to promote habits of order. Furniture finished like 
good cabinet work is more likely to be respected, even by the mischievous 
school boy, than that of an unsightly or rough character". — For further 
information on this subject see Ci/clopcedia of Education. 

SCHOOL-HOUSE. — Of the first importance in any system of public 
instruction, is school arcliitecture, including every thing that relates to the 
building in which the instruction is to be imparted. All matters that 
concern the health of the school; namely, the situation of the school-house, 
its furniture, the temperature of the rooms, and the means for warming, 
lighting, and ventilating them, are considered either in separate articles in 
this work, or under the head of Hygiene, School. It is designed here 
specially to treat of (I) the construction of the school-house, and (II) its 
internal arrangement. 

I. What material should be used in the construction of a school build- 
ing depends entirely upon its location and the means at command. Owing 
to the improved modern methods of building, wood, brick, or 
ijons ruction, g^^j^g .^^j j^g ^^q^ indifferently, as far as healthfulness is con- 
cerned, economic considerations alone deciding which is to be employed. It 
may be said, in general, that these considerations point to the use of stone 
or brick in cities and towns, and of wood in the rural districts, except in 
old and thickly-settled countries where wood is scarce. The increased 
attention bestowed upon the appearance of the school-house at the preseiit 



SCHOOL-HOUSE 259 

time is one of the most encouraging proofs of the general and permanent 
interest aroused in the welfare of schools, since purely esthetic consider- 
ations are generally the last to make themselves felt. The rudeness of the 
district-school building is proverbial, yet the expression of the cherished 
memories that cluster around it forms a part of the choicest literature of 
every civilized country. If the transfiguring power of early association, 
therefore, renders it an object of affection through life, in spite of its un- 
couthness, how much stronger would that affection be if the matured taste 
of later years confirmed the preference of childhood ! Not only the tes- 
timony of eminent writers, but the unwritten experience of every observing 
l)erson, bears abundant witness to the subtle and enduring influence of early 
associations; and now, when the subject of education is receiving so large 
a share of careful thought, with a view to discover all available ways to 
perfect its means and methods, it would seem that this powerful agent 
should not be neglected. Without squandering money, therefore, to make 
the school-house pretentious, or a perfect specimen of one of the conven- 
tional orders of architecture, pains should be taken that it should not be 
an offense to the eye, or out of harmony with the landscape. Since this 
can generally be done, also, without any, or with only slight, additional cost, 
the educational value, moral and esthetic, of the appearance of the school- 
house, may properly be included in the plans of the architect. As to the' 
solidity of the school building in all its parts, it is not too much to say that 
no financial objections which would impair this, should, for a moment, be 
entertained. The contingencies which may happen at anj moment where 
large numbers of children are gathered together, are so momentous in their 
character, as to render this imperative. The size of the school-house should 
be determined, of course, by the number of pupils it is intended to accom- 
modate. An eminent authority says that, a building designed for an un- 
graded school to be taught by a single teacher, should contain, at least, 
1)00 sq. ft. of floor space; being intended to accommodate from 50 to 80 
pupils. In regard to the proper size of class rooms, see Hygiene, School. 
II. Every district-school house should have a vestibule, a main room, 
and one or more class-rooms, unless the school is taught by only one 
teacher. The vestibule should be commodious, dry, well-lighted. 
Internal and properly supplied with pegs for hats and outer garments, 
^^imt^' ™^^^' "^^sh basins, and all means for ensuring personal clean- 
liness. In mixed schools, it should be divided into two rooms. 
The best authorities are almost unanimous in the opinion that the shape of 
the school room proper should be that of an oblong about twice as long as 
broad, the size being determined by the probable attendance. The ceiling 
should be from 12 to 15 feet in height, the controlling consideration being 
that each pupil should have not less than 108 cubic feet of air space. The 
door and the teacher's desk should be at opposite ends of the room, the 
former, when practicable, at the southern extremity, the northern being 
without windows, and provided with a shallow platform about 15 inches 
high. This arrangement enables the teacher to survey the school, and is 
simple and convenient for examination or exhibition purposes. Very 
large school rooms are not expedient, experience having shown that a large 
number of pupils may be supervised and taught to better advantage in 
two rooms of medium size, the teacher having an assistant for the purpose, 



260 SCHOOL MANAGEMENT — SCHOOL RECORDS 

than in one large room. A separate class room is indispensable in all 
schools, except the smallest, the number being increased according to the 
size of the school. In its construction, the class room should conform 
proportionally to the school room, and should, if possible, be in immediate 
connection with it, but separable from it completely as far as noise is con- 
cerned. The teacher's room, in small schools, could be utilized as the 
school library, or as a temporary storing place for such delicate apparatus 
as required special care. Schools of other grades and sizes will, of course, 
require a different arrangement of rooms. Nearly every civilized country, 
in fact, has its own plans for the construction of school- houses, and the 
arrangement of school and class rooms, determined by the peculiarities of 
its school system, or by national characteristics. See School Fueniture. 

SCHOOL MANAGEMENT is a department of the teacher's profes- 
sion which includes (I) the organization of the school, and (II) its conduct. 
Under the former, must be considered (I ) the classification (see Class) ; 
(2) the distribution, as to order and time, of the branches to be taught, 
(course of instruction and programme) ; and (3) the proper assignment of 
the work of instruction (in a graded school) to the several teachers, either 
in accordance with the class system or with the departmental system (q. v.). 
The conduct of the school has reference (1) to instruction, and (2) to 
discipline. Great care should be taken, by means of a carefully con- 
structed programme, or daily order of exercises, to secure to each subject 
its proper amount of time, according to its place in the course of instruc- 
tion, as well as to insure an equable advancement on the part of the pupils 
in each subject of the grade, as preliminary to jwomotion. The promotion 
of pupils is a matter of great practical importance in the management of 
a school. One of the most serious errors made by teachers is the too rapid 
advancement of their j^upils. Promotions should always be based upon 
a careful examination; and, in a graded school, care should be taken that 
every grade is passed through in a legitimate manner, that is, without hurry 
or cramming. When the school is ungraded, the advancement of in- 
dividual pupils is to be considered; but there is the same need of avoiding 
haste, so as to secure thorough proficiency, as the basis of promotion. 
Government is, also, an important department of school management; 
since, without efficient government, all attempts at effective school instruc- 
tion must be fruitless. (See Course of Instruction, Discipline, and 
Government.) 

SCHOOL RECORDS are of great importance, both in connection 
with the management of the school itself, and for the purpose of affording 
a means of obtaining accurate and valuable returns to be embodied in a 
general system of school statistics. These records are, therefore, to be ar- 
ranged from a twofold stand-point: (I) AVhat are needed as auxiliary to 
the keeping and instruction of the school itself; and (II) What are required 
for a proper administration of the school laws, as well as to show the con- 
dition of the system to which the school belongs, and the progress of edu- 
cation in the town, city, and state in which it is located, as compared with 
other places. 

I. For the carrying out of the first object, there should be an accurate 
registration of each pupil's name and age, his parents' name, the date of 
his admission into the school, of his successive promotion from grade to 



SCIENCE • 261 

grade, and of his discharge, with the cause of the same, thus presenting 
. a history in outline of the pupil's whole career in the school. 

hegister. ry^^ register kept for these items should be in such a form as to 
be easy of reference, either by a numerical designation of the pupils in the 
order of their admission, or by an alphabetical arrangement. Auxiliary 
to the school-register, there may be (in large schools, should be) an admis- 
sion book, and a discharge book, the entries being first made in these 
. ^ books, and transferred at stated times (weekly or monthly) into 
reford's^ the register. The admission book should contain a statement 
of the antecedents of the pupil, and the discharge book, the 
cause of his leaving the school, and his destination. There should, also, 
be books showing the school history of the pupil more in detail, as his 
daily attendance, conduct, merit and demerit marks for recitations, etc. 
One book, usually called the roll book, may be used for all these particulars, 
there being, in a graded school, one such book for each class, and kept by 
the class teacher. In this book may also be entered the place of residence 
of each pupil, in order to facilitate communication with the parents. The 
school diary is auxiliary to this, containing transcripts from the roll book, 
with summaries of marks and a statement of class standing, the pupil being- 
required to take this diary home for the inspection and signature of his 
parents. Other records, besides those enumerated, may be kept for special 
purposes; but, ordinarily, these are all that are indispensably requisite to 
carry on the internal operations of the school. 

II. The records made necessary by the provisions of law under which 
the school is established and supported, will vary, of course, witli the 
nature of those provisions, and with the organization of the system to 
which the school belongs. But there are certain common and 
records ^indispensable features, inasmuch as there are facts which all 
school records for this purpose should aim to show, among which 
may be mentioned the following: (1) The number of pupils enrolled during 
the year; (2) The average enrollment, or "average number belonging"; 
(3) Tho. number in attendance at each session of the school; and (4) the 
number of pupils of each grade, and of certain specified ages. — No at- 
tempt is made in this article to present tjie forms of these records, as there 
is a wide diversity of form in different places, and as the form is of second- 
ary importance to the presenting of the required facts. 

SCIENCE, the Teaching* of. In this article, the treatment will 
refer to the teaching of science (I) as a branch of elementary instruction, 
and (II) as a department of higher education. 

I. This subject is one into Avhich great confusion has been introduced 

by the use of the words science and scientific in two different senses. In 

. the strict sense of the term, the scientific knowledge of a sub- 

^!f^^l^ iect is a knowledge of the laws which harmonize and explain 
science, s, . , ^ r, . , , ^ 

its various phenomena, bcience goes beyond mere appearances, 

and finds that, amidst endless variety, there is unity ; and, amid apparent 
discord, there is harmony. In this sense, it is the highest outcome of in- 
tellectual effort. The human mind deals first with the concrete. For a 
long time it scarcely rises above the information of the senses. It then 
groups the impressions of the senses into more comprehensive unities, and 
in this process gains a certain power of abstraction. But science supposes 



262 ■ SCIENCE - 

that the mind has been long practiced in that power of abstraction and 
generalization. It views in succession the principal facts in any depart- 
ment of nature as a whole, and it seeks to find the invisible order which 
pervfxles them all. In this sense of the term, also, all subjects admit of 
scientific treatment; as there can be no doubt that law pervades all phe- 
nomena, there must be a science of mental phenomena as well as of physical 
phenomena; and, therefore, no single phenomenon can exist which has not 
its own place in the system of the universe. But, from various considera- 
tions, the term science has been often restricted to the explanation of the 
laws which regulate matter, and this is the sense in which it is used in 
this article. Now it is plain that, in the strict sense of the term, children 
cannot be taught science. If the scientific stage is the highest in the 
development of the intellectual faculties, we cannot expect to find it in 
the school. It belongs to the university. But we may lay the foundation 
of it at an earlier period. Indeed, we cannot help doing something to- 
ward this work; but we may do it awkwardly and unconsciously, or 
skillfully and consciously. The latter is the function of the educated 
teacher. AVe must, therefore, inquire more minutely into the mode in 
which the foundations of science are laid. For this purpose we shall quote 
the words of the late Professor Payne, i^cience lie defined as " organ- 
ized knowledge"', and, after explaining the meaning of organized in this 
definition, he proceeds: " Eeturning to the other factor of the definition, 
. hnoiuledge, we obsen-e that there are two kinds of knowledge — 
oflcnowl- ^^^^ ^^'^ know through our own experience, and what we know 
(.flge^ through the experience of others. Thus, I know by my own 
knowledge that I have an audience before me, and I know 
through the knowledge of others that the earth is 25,000 miles in circum- 
ference. This latter fact, however, I know in a sense different from that 
in which I know the former. The one is a part of my experience, of my 
very being. The other I can only be strictly said to know when I have, 
by an effort of the mind, passed through the connected chain of facts and 
reasonings on which the demonstration is founded. Thus only can it be- 
come my knowledge in the true sense of the term. Strictly speaking, 
then, organized knowledge, or science, is originally based on unorganized 
knowledge, and is the outcome of the learners observation of facts 
through the exercise of his senses, and his own reflection upon what he has 
observed. This knowledge, ultimately organized into science through the 
operation of his mind, he may with just right call his own; and, as a 
learner, he can properly call no other knowledge his own. AVhat is reported 
to us by another is that other's, if gained, at first-hand, by experience; but 
it stands on a different footing from that which we have gained by our 
own experience. He merely hands it over to us; but, when we receive it, 
its condition is already changed. It wants the brightness, definiteness, 
and certainty in our eyes, which it had in his; and, moreover, it is merely 
a loan, and not our property. The fact, for instance, about the earth's 
circumference was to him a living fact; it sprung into being as the out- 
come of experiments and reasonings, with the entire chain of which it 
was seen by him to be intimately — indeed, indissolubly and organically 
— connected. To us it is a dead fact, severed from its connection with the 
body of truth, and, by our hypothesis, having no organic relation to the 



SCIENCE 263 

living truths we have gained by our own minds. What I insist on, then, 
is, that the knowledge from experience — that which is gained by bring- 
ing our own minds into direct contact with matter — is the only knowl- 
edge that, as novices in science, we have to do with. The dogmatic 
knowledge imposed on us by authority, though originally gained by the 
same means, is really, not ours, but another's — is, as far as we are con- 
cerned, unorganizable, and, therefore, though science to its proprietor, is 
not science to us. To us it is merely information, or hap-hazard knowl- 
edge''. — The account here given contains the very pith of the matter, and 
cannot be too deeply pondered and impressed on the mind; and we shall, 

therefore, put the same thoughts in another shape. The child 
General- ^^.^^ perceives individual objects. He notices the qualities in 

these objects; and, when he finds the same qualities recur in 
different individual objects, he naturally groups them together under the 
same notion or name. This is the child's first effort at generalization. 
(See Intellectual Education.) Now, it is plain that if he had not 
known the individuals, he could never have made the generalization; and 
that, if any one were to tell him the generalization without his having seen 

the individuals and noticed the similarity, the generalization 
teacfi ^^'^^^^ ^^ *^^ ^^ ^^^^ ^^^ *^ him. Out of this fact flow some of 
science, the principal rules in regard to the method of teaching science: 

(1) The pupil must be brought face to face with nature; he 
must see the individual ; he must himself make the experiment. (2) He 
must make the generalization, himself; he must be a discoverer. It is here, 
however, that the skillful teacher can wisely interfere. The child, if left 
to himself, might be too long in making the discovery, for he might not 
stumble upon individuals which contain similarities. The teacher, there- 
fore, takes care to bring similar individuals before his pupils in sufficient 
number. He sternly checks his own wish to shorten the work by teUing 
the generalization; but he prepares the way for the pupil's making it by 
adducing instance after instance, until the similarities cannot but become 
visible to the pupil's mind. And this rule suggests another, — that, 
wherever it is possible, the pupil shoidd be led along the road over which 
mankind traveled in making the discovery originally. He must, of course, 
commit many blunders before he reaches the truth; yet, under a skillful 
teacher, such a process is eminently educative. But, besides the making 
of generalizations, there is also the faculty of observation to be carefully 
cultivated. Indeed the cultivation of the faculty of observation is essen- 
tially necessary to the formation of correct generalizations. At first, the 
child makes his generalizations unconsciously. He sees a tree, and then 
another tree, and then another, and somehow they impress himas being 
like; but he has no accurate conception in regard to the points in which 
they are like. — Even when he becomes conscious of the points of resem- 
blance in objects, he may find that the resemblances in them are on the 
surface, and that there are greater differences separating the objects from 
each other. He is now coming nearer the stage in which he can deal with 
a subject scientifically. For observation has to furnish, as the basis of 
scientific conceptions, a more accurate knowledge than that possessed by 
the ordinary observer. The pupil has to notice qualities which ordinarily 
escape observation. The teacher again must take the utmost care that 



264 SCIENCE 

the pupil has really observed the peculiarity before he tells him the special 
name given to it. Else the pupil's mind will be crammed with a 
number of technical terms of the meaning of which he probably will 
have no clear conception; and even should he have a clear conception of 
their meaning when he hears it from his teacher, he will be sure to forget 
it very soon. In one word, the pupil must conquer every step in science 
by personal observation and experience. He must find out every thing 
himself. The teacher has simply to arrange the order in which the facts 
of nature are to be presented to the pupil, and to lay before him only 
those phenomena which it is important for him to observe. From what 
has been said, it is plain that the plan of going through all the principal 
phenomena of a science is not to be adopted in schools. This is a method 
appropriate only to the last stage of scientific instruction. The teacher 
must select the portions of science which will be most educative; and he 
will treat them in such a way as to interest the pupil, and make him 
take an active part in ascertaining the facts of nature. At the same time, 
he will take care to make his various lessons bear on each other. Though 
he does not disclose a law, but leaves it to dawn upon the pupil's mind 
from the presentation of instances, he will see to it that each lesson adds 
to the structure which the previous one has helped to raise. He will have 
a fixed plan in his own mind; and he will look forward to the intellectual 
result which he is to produce, in process of time, by the examples and ex« 
periments which he makes the pupil observe and perform. 

In all these considerations, we have been looking at science as a sul> 
ject worthy of being studied for its own sake. I'his is unquestionably 
_ true. The intellectual powers of man are an essential feature 
siderations ^^ i^^^'s nature, and they demand exercise. This exercise is 
* invariably accompanied by an intense pleasure. Now, the 
scientific knowledge of nature is eminently calculated to call the intellect- 
ual powers into activity, and therefore it opens up to man a source of 
pure and lasting enjoyment. But the teacher may look on the knowledge 
of science from other points of view. Man is corporeal, and his physical 
well-being depends on his coming into proper relations with physical nat- 
ure. It is important for him to know these relations, and the teacher of 
youth Avill endeavor to enlighten the mind of his pupil in regard to them. 
At the same time, these relations are most deeply impressed on the mind, 
when the facts of science are taught according to the laws of education. 
If I inform a boy that carbonic acid gas is deleterious, the impression is of 
the faintest nature, and will not lead, in nine cases out of ten, to any ac- 
tion; but if I show the boy how to produce carbonic acid gas by the union 
of its component elements, that is, if I lead him to make experiments by 
which the truth will be forced upon his mind without my teUing him that 
it is injurious to life; and if, in addition to this, I make him discover that 
he is continually exhaling this gas, he will be deeply impressed with the 
necessity of ventilation, and will make every effort to procure it. Then, 
again, nature presents herself not merely as the embodiment of law but 
also as the embodiment of beauty; and the teacher should, therefore, en- 
deavor to bring out this feature occasionally. He will point, for example, 
to the exquisite structure of flowers; he will lead the child to feel the 
loveliness of landscapes; he will interest him in the habits of animals; in 



SCIENCE 265 

fact, he will try to make nature reveal herself to him in her concrete love- 
liness and variety. 

Among the questions keenly discussed in connection with science teach- 
ing are (1) the order in which the sciences should be taught, and (2) what 
sciences are suitable for schools. Opinions on these subjects 
selection ^^^^ necessarily differ until agreement as to the meaning of 
terms is reached. The fact is, as we have seen, that all the 
sciences call for processes of thought which can be reasonably expected 
only in mature minds; but it is true, at the same time, that separate facts, 
in all these sciences, tending toward a unity, may be discovered by a child 
of eleven or twelve years of age. Faraday said that chemistry could be 
taught to a boy of eleven; others denied that it could; and in a certain 
sense, both were right from their respective points of view. At the same 
time there is no doubt that the facts of some sciences, in the average, are 
much more complicated than those of other sciences; and, therefore, there 
is wisdom in teaching them in a certain order. Botany, for instance, is 
among the simplest of the sciences. It calls into play the power of minute 
observation. The child is interested in examining the structure of the 
plant and the growth of the various parts. An appeal is also made to his 
powers of grouping or, in other words, of classification. And the pupil 
has a large field in botany for these two activities. (See Botany.) The 
same is true of the other science of classification, zoology; but the processes 
are a little more complicated. It should, therefore, naturally follow 
botany. From these, the pupil should proceed to some department of 
physics, and from that, advance to chemistry. The one should go before 
the other, because the processes of chemical motion are much more dif- 
ficult to observe accurately than those of mechanical motion. And the 
course of science might well end with physiology, in which many of the 
modes of reasoning employed are abstruse, and the student is continually 
liable to be misled by appearances and analogies. 

II. One of the most important aims of the educator is to lead man to 
recognize how to live most successfully for himself; to realize the responsi- 
bilities of his position, and, by seeking to comply with these re- 
vortant sponsibilities, to attain to the greatest possible happiness. In 
aim. this process of education, the student must be led to recognize 
the material and physical conditions of his existence; to know 
himself, not as an independent being, but as one dependent upon the mul- 
tifarious conditions of the vast scheme of nature, and as one, who, alike 
in what he is and in that of which he is capable, is strictly under the 
control of natural law. In other words, man can only know himself by 
comparison with other objects in nature, — can only know his powers by 
comparison with the forces by which other forms of matter are controlled. 
Again, as a mere question of material prosperity, the study of 
nataral ^^^^^^^,1 science is forced upon our consideration. No thoughtful 
science. in3,n wandering through the aisles of a great international exhibi- 
tion can fail to see that all progress in applied science and the 
arts must be based, in the first place, upon an exact knowledge of natural 
resources, material and physical. It will be admitted that knowledge of 
all kinds is fundamentally based upon the evidence of our senses, but such 
evidence is apt to mislead, unless checked by experiment; experiment, to 



266 SCIENCE 



■ 



be of real utility, must be exact and systematic. The reasoning that 
draws conclusions from such experiments must be logical; and language, 
at once ample and exact, is required as an implement, only of value when 
wielded with precision, to widen the fields of inquiry with the utmost 
economy of mental labor. We are compelled to make these remarks 
because the true importance of a scientitic study of nature has not been 
recognized by the greater part of those who are engaged in education. A 
knowledge of the leading truths of natural science is, however, essential to 
education, (1) because of their fundamental character, and (2) because of 

the method by which such sciences are pursued, which method 

I ■^\ ^f is the same as that which ought to obtain in every action of our 

education, every-day lives. Comparing the training given by language and 

mathematics with that given by natural science, we see that, 
whilst language cultivates the memory, and mathematics trains the reason- 
ing faculties, neither affords any means for the cultivation of observation 
and experiment. Turning to the natural sciences themselves, we find that 
the physical branches cultivate observation, experiment, and inductive 
reasoning; while the material branches, including the natural history 
sciences, cultivate especially the faculties of observation and systematic 
classification. But, in addition to this, from the multitudinous data with 
which the latter deal, and the impossibility of obtaining complete series of 
such data, these studies inevitably lead the inquiring mind to a constant 
consideration of probabilities, or, in other words, to a habit, of the utmost 
importance to us practically, of justly weighing circumstantial evidence. 
In view of the vast mass of facts accumulating more and more rapidly each 
day from the various fields of scientific investigation, it is impossible that 
any human mind can grasp all the details of even a single branch. The 
following considerations are, however, important in this view of education: 
(1) that, by experience in some two sciences, the one physical and the other 
relating to the forms assumed by matter, the student should learn the 
principles on which these natural sciences are pursued, and therefrom be 
able to appreciate the value of scientific training and knowledge; (2) that 

he should understand the general scope of the various scien- 

WJiat the ces; (3) that he should be familiar with the broad generali- 

^sho^fd 2^*^^^^ ^^ science; (4) that he should not be ignorant of such 

learn, common scientific details as occur to us every day, and have an 

immediate and direct connection with our welfare and success in 
life; and (5) that he should be taught how to obtain information by refer- 
ence, and how to weigh the trustworthiness of authorities. In order that the 
second and third of these requirements may be intelligently obtained, they 
must logically be preceded by the first, and simultaneously the acquisition 
of the knowledge implied by the fifth may well be commenced. In the 
physical branches of scientific inquiry, qualitative analytical chemistry 
theoretically best meets the requirements of the case; in the material 
sciences, we may select one of those which are called natural history 

sciences. Under this head, certain of the natural sciences which 
ji^^f!^ treat of the living forms of matter were formerly included; but 

the term is a most indefinite one, and must cease to be used at 
all, if confined to its old signification. The sciences especially included 
under it, botany and zoology, have been placed upon altogether new and 



SCIENCE OF GOVERNMENT 267 

broader foundations as branches of biology, so that they now cover 
morphological and physiological ground never contemplated in the old 
use of the term, 'fhere would seem to be a propriety in using the term 
to express that pursuit of nature which is essentially out-of-door in its 
character, — the study of the external relationship of beings to each other; 
and in this view we should certainly need to include geological investiga- 
tions. At the same time, it will be apparent to every naturalist that the 
scope of such a term could not be rigorously defined. There can be no 
doubt that an out-of-door study of nature ought to be an essential element 
of education. It may be long before it is generally introduced into the 
course of school education, but it should certainly be enforced upon the 
community as a duty at least in home culture. It should be used to cul- 
tivate habits of close, exact and systematic observation, commenced in 
the field and continued in the laboratory; of judiciously collecting, care- 
fully preserving and classifying, some one or more series of natural objects; 
and of referring for information not to be obtained by personal inquiry, 
regarding the objects observed and collected, to trustworthy sources. By 
well-judged, training in either botany or any one of the branches of zoology, 
the ends above indicated may be attained; whilst the general spirit of ob- 
servation and inquiry in the wide field of natural science that will be en- 
couraged, will lead to a breadth and liberality of mental tone. Nor need 
this general and more desultory observation be dreaded, as apt to lead to 
hasty, unfounded, and inexact acquirements, if the mind is duly drained, 
as had been suggested, in rigorous methods of thought by the exact pursuit 
of some special subject of scientific study. If there be any truth in the 
suggestions just thrown out, it will be apparent that such training in the 
natural history sciences cannot be commenced too early in life, because the 
spirit of the training is such that it should imbue the entire mental cult- 
ure of the individual; and, furthermore, if this early training has been 
neglected, the study of science in an advanced period of education, will 
not be so successful, because it will lack the vivid conceptions which can 
only be acquired by the exercise of the observing faculties in early life. 
It only remains to add that, as all teaching by the very nature of these 
sciences must be objective, the duty of the instructor, at every stage of 
science teaching, is to supplement nature and not to take her place, — 
not to impart information but to guide the pupil in the self- 
uP^f-^ f^ , acquirement of knowledge. Books, similarly, are only to be 
' permitted as dictionaries to explain such points as the pupil 
cannot elucidate by his own efforts. — For a valuable list of works on this 
subject, see C>/clopredia of Education and the Appendix of this work. 

SCIENCE OF GOVERNMENT, the name given to a branch of 
instruction in primary or secondary schools, which is designed to impart 
to the pupils a knowledge of the political system under which they live, 
and to make them, as far as requisite, familiar with the different functions 
of government, and the mode in which they are performed. It, generally, 
includes a consideration of the constitution of the country or state, the 
qualifications and duties of the principal officers of government, the legal 
restrictions imposed upon citizens, and an outline of civil and municipal 
regulations. Many excellent treatises have been prepared for this purpose 
for use in elementary schools; and, there can be no question of the value of 



268. SECONDARY INSTRUCTION — SELF-EDUCATION ^ 

this department of instruction for all classes of pupils, pai^ticularly in 
public schools, one of the most important objects of which is to prepare for 
intelliojent and useful citizenship. 

SECONDARY INSTRUCTION, that grade of instruction which 
is usually afforded in high schools, academies, etc., or in institutions above 
the ordinary grade of a common or primary school. This grade of instruc- 
tion is intermediate between primary instruction and superior instruction, 
or that afforded in colleges and universities. 

SELF-EDUCATION, that development of the powers which is 
carried on by the individual himself, without the aid of others. To a 
• certain extent, this education is not only unconscious, but in- 
la t IS. qyHq^jIq^ r^l;^Q constant recurrence of like conditions or actions, 
the knowledge of which is conveyed to the individual by the senses, during 
the growth of mind and body, is always attended with an increased skill in 
the use of the powers of both, which, of itself, constitutes an education. 

The agents by which this knowledge is converted into an un- 
^^'* ^" conscious education are chiefly habit and experience; the one 
producing increased ease of action under like circumstances, and thus 
rendering the individual more capable; the other enabling him to system- 
atize his knowledge, and to use it as an instrument for further acquisition. 
To determine, in all cases, just where this education ceases, and voluntary 
^ . . self -education begins, would probably be very difficult; yet, in 

general, it may be said that the active intervention of the will 
is the most obvious feature by which self-education may be distinguished. 
It is usually regarded as that education which is carried on intentionally, 
outside, or beyond the influence, of the school. Even here, however, the 
definition is imperfect; for it must always be difficult to estimate at its 
true comparative value the strength of each of two impulses which act thus 
at the same time and invisibly; but, probably, a truer conception of the 
two powers, self-education and school education, may be acquired by sup- 
posing the difference between them to be one of function rather than of 
degree — school educatiim serving rather as a director or systeraatizer of 
power, while self-education must often be looked upon as identical with 
innate power, from our inability to separate the one from the other. We 
know what training the school gives; and, though we cannot analyze the 
results it produces with sufficient accuracy to assign to the school and to 
the individual the proper share due to each, we know from many 
comparisons made between countries with schools and those without them, 
that the advantage lies decidedly with the former. That the school is 
rather a director of power than a creator of it, is shown by contrasting the 
large number of men who have enjoyed its advantages without manifesting 
special ability afterward in any walk of life, with those who have risen to 

the highest positions without this privilege. Education is of two 

lindsof k^^"*^^' — practical and theoretical, the first based principally 

education, ^^poi facts and experience, and dealing largely with human 

nature; the other, acquired from books, and concerning itself 
in great measure with abstractions and theories which, though valuable 
enough for purposes of general culture, are of little use in practical life, 
and, if exclusively pursued, produce a positive disqualification for it. Of 
these two kinds of education, it is hardly too much to say that the former 



SELF-EDUCATION 269 

is the more available, in the ordinary affairs of life, in a vast majority of 
cases. Hence, it should never be forgotten by the educator, that the facil- 
ities for mental acquisition which he offers the pupil by systematic 
instruction, too frequently result in vacillation, or feebleness of purpose, 
and are almost inevitably accompanied with a loss, on the part of the latter, 
of that vividness of apprehension which experimental acquaintance gives. 
The only amends, therefore, he can make is to render his instruction as 
practical, and as far removed from mere book-learning, as possible. Knowl- 
7, *^dg6 and rote-learning have often a wonderful resemblance, 
men "^^^^^®' essentially, they may have nothing in common. The 
picture of a Lincoln, hastily gathering book-knowledge by the 
light of the cabin fire; or of a Franklin, finding in the intervals of his work 
in a chandler's shop and a printing office, an equivalent for the school, 
should be a sufficient admonition to every teacher, that the privileges of 
the school room are not indispensable to the most brilliant success. It is 
not necessary to multiply instances of self-taught men; the ranks of great- 
ness have been almost exclusively filled from this class. Three most valu- 
able attributes are strengthened, if not created, by a course of 
^^'^J^^^_^^^ self -education: self-confidence, independence of judgment, and 
education, perseverance. He only who has always depended upon himself, 
knows accurately the limit of his powers, measures beforehand 
every difficulty, and does not look, at the last moment, for extraneous aid; 
while the habit of self-reliance thus cultivated, lays the foundation for a 
solidity of character which, in critical moments, is not swayed by fitful or 
transient influences. The third attribute, perseverance, is the necessary 
result of such an education. Having always been accustomed to encounter 
obstacles, and having always overcome them, the joy of conflict and the 
joy of conquest, become, to self-taught men, synonymous. The atmosphere 
of difficulty is as the breath of life and the result is never doubtful to 
those who gather strength from opposition. These are the most essential 
elements of success, and, in practical matters, weigh more than all the 
advantages of the school. On the other hand, the commonest 
vantanes ^^^*^^ ^^ ^'^® self-taught man is a depreciation of all studies or 
pursuits which have no practical bearing. General culture — 
knowledge for itself alone, with all the pleasures and consolations which 
it brings — is underestimated. Accustomed always to see his thoughts 
followed by tangible results, the moral aspect of thought is lost sight of; 
and his ideal standard never rises above this utilitarian level. This 
narrowness of mind leads almost inevitably to a want of sympathy with 
liberal pursuits, and sometimes to a kind of hardness or positiveness of 
character which bears the appearance of arrogance. Weakness being scarcely 
understood by the successful, self-taught man, want of charity is a natural 
fruit of his habits of thought. These defects, however, are frequently 
removed by age; and, even at their worst, can hardly be said to be so serious 
as those which have been cited as incident to misdirected education in the 
school. Of the two kinds of education — self-education and school educa- 
tion, it may, therefore, be said in general, that the former is of greater value 
than the latter; that for all practical action in the familiar matters of daily 
life, all great emergencies, whether of peace or war, which require inde- 
pendence of judgment, promptness of decision or action, and inflexible 



270 SEMINARY — SENSES 

perseverance, the self-taught man is vastly the superior; while, in purely 
speculative pursuits, in researches or projects undertaken without hope of 
immediate or material result, the man of the schools, whose education has 
been conducted with that broader outlook upon life which leads directly 
to culture solely for its own sake, manifests a far greater zeal and activity. 
Neither kind of education is to be commended by itself; since the 
deficiencies of one need to be supplied by the advantages of the other. 

SEMINARY (Lat. seminar ium) a place where seed is sown, from 
semen, seed), a term, used in education to denote an institution of learning 
of any grade, though oftener applied to one of secondary grade. It is also 
applied to certain kinds of professional schools; as a theological seminary, 
a teachers' seminary, etc., the idea intended to be conveyed by the term 
being that of preparation for subsequent usefulness. 

SENSES, the Education of the. Education, through the senses, 
has received a great amount of attention in recent times, and a special 
effort to systematize it, is made in the kindergarten (q. v.) ; but compara- 
tively little thought has been given to the training of the senses themselves. 
And, yet, there is ample experience to prove that much can be 

we oj. ^QjjQ jj^ ^ijjg direction. In cases where special senses have been 
called into the most vigorous action, they have attained capabilities which 
could scarcely have been dreamed of. It may not be advisable to attempt 
to cultivate each sense in every individual to the same degree of acute- 
ness that has been reached in these extraordinary instances; but, there is 
no doubt that the neglect to train the senses, now almost universal, is not 
justifiable. The special attributes which we may assign to the senses, are 
quickness in receiving impressions, strength in taking hold of the impres- 
sions, and vivacity in noticing not merely the unity which is presented to 
the mind, but in remarking the various details which compose or char- 
acterize this unity. These three qualities are quite different from each 
other. If an object is held up before a number of children, some will be 
found able to form an impression of it much more quickly than others, 
while some will be very slow to catch a notion of it. So, again, they will 
differ in the strength of grasp with which they seize liold of the object. 
On some it will produce but a feeble impression, and that impression will, 
consequently, soon die away; but by others the object will be grasped 
firmly, and, consequently, held firmly. ISIany, too, that may be able to 
take strong impressions, may be surpassed by others of less strength in the 
capacity to catch the multiplicity of details which are j)resented to the 
view. In fact, the strong sense is generally absorbed in the unity; but the 
less vigorous notices the details along with the unity. Now, these quali- 
ties are inborn with the senses; and it is likely that the original difference, 
in these respects, which exists in different minds, is sufficient to account 
for the mental differences that ultimately appear among human beings. 
Circumstances will explain the rest of the phenomena; but these qualities 
are capable of cultivation, being intensified in proportion to the healthy 
exercise of the senses. 

In attempting to train the senses, the most essential process is 

Ualvrocess ^^'^^^^^^^' '^^^ blind man becomes singularly expert in the sense 

' of touch because he brings it into continual play, and trusts 

much to it. He must voluntarily follow the course which necessity compels 



SENSES 271 

him to follow. Science has not thrown much light, as yet, on the 
lower senses; and, therefore, little can be done for their training. The 
vital sense is so closely connected with processes which take place in un- 
consciousness that little can be made of it. Somewhat more can be done 
with the senses of taste and smell. If the child were asked to 
and'snieU. ^^^^* ^"^ ^^.^^' ^°^ determine by taste what objects were pre- 
sented to him, the sense might become much more perfect and 
much more useful. Attention could be called to the general harmony 
that exists between the taste and healthfulness of objects, and the child 
might thus learn, in many cases, to choose the good and reject the evil. 
The same remarks apply to the sense of smell; but a wider range could be 
given to its activities. 'J'he child, for example, might be required to 
determine flowers by their smells. But it is when we come to the higher 
senses that much can be done by isolating practice. In regard to the sense 
of touch, there are three exercises which may be usefully prac- 
ticed. First, the sense of touch over the body may be rendered 
much more acute; and, in consequence, what are called the sensory 
circles, very much narrowed. Experiment has proved this fact most con- 
clusively. Then, from touch we derive the sense of pressure. Here the 
child may find interesting exercise in trying to estimate the weight of an 
object from its pressure on the hand, or on other parts of the body. This 
constitutes one of the peculiar exercises of object teaching (q. v.). More- 
over, touch gives the notion of temperature; and here again the child 
might be taught to come very close to the exact degree of Fahrenheit by 
the sense of heat which he has in his touch. The training which 
*^'^' may be given to the sense of hearing, is also various. The 
child might be exercised in ascertaining from what direction sounds come. 
He might be taught to distinguish various sounds, and, especially, musical 
sounds; and he might learn to analyze complex sounds. Some think, that 
the last exercise should always be preliminary to learning to read. Thus, 
the instructor utters a word, and draws the child's attention to the fact 
that it consists of several sounds. The child is then asked to analyze the 
sounds; and the child does not commence to learn to read until he is able 
to analyze short words into their simplest sounds. Spelling, in the sense 
of analyzing the sounds, according to this method, precedes reading. 
According to the plionic method, the analysis of sounds is employed to 
facilitate the pronunciation of words, and, hence, as auxiliary to reading. 
(See Fhonio Method.) — The sense of sight is the one through which 
education takes place most of all. It is, therefore, brought into 
Sight. continual activity, and thus receives greater training. In the 
object-teaching system, this is accomplished in various ways, but, particu- 
larly, by the use of color (q. v.). Distinct colors are first brought before 
the child's eye, and he is gradually practiced in distinguishing them, so as, 
ultimately, to be able to note the minutest shades of difference. Then, 
again, the child is taught to form from sight an accurate idea of size and 
distance. 

The space here does not admit of more than a mere glance at this im- 
portant subject; and only in connection with the training of children. 
But, while there is no doubt that the greatest good can be done in the 
earliest years, the training may profitably be continued throughout the 



272 SENTENTIAL ANALYSIS — SINGING 

whole period of education. The organization of methods for such train- 
ing has still to be discussed by educationists. Moreover, physiologists are 
still in great uncertainty as to many points. Great discoveries have been 
recently made by the researches of Weber, Wundt, Helmholtz, and others; 
but 'we may expect still more important discoveries from the investiga- 
tions now going on; and there is no doubt that such discoveries will 
throw light on the proper method of training the senses. — See G. Wil- 
son, The Five Gateways of Knowledge (4th ed., London, 1863); Wyld, 
Physics and Philosophy of the Senses (London, 1856); Julius Bernstein, 
The Five Senses of Man (N. Y. , 1876). (See also Ear, and Eye.) 

SENTENTIAL ANALYSIS. See Analysis, Grammatical. 

SIMULTANEOUS INSTRUCTION. See Concert Teaching. 

SINGING. From the days of St. Ambrose and Gregory the Great 
to the present age, singing-schools and classes have existed, for purposes 
of instruction in elementary vocal and choral exercises. The need of early 
training has always been recognized by the great masters as indispensable 
to extensive and thorough accomplishment in this art. The educational 
value of music, and more particularly vocal music, has been universally 
conceded by both theoretical and practical educators, as well as by 
statesmen and philanthropists. Martin Luther attached very great im- 
portance to it; and through him the choral and the special hymn were 
given to all the people. Subsequently, not only Germany, but Great 
Britain, and the United States of America, greatly encouraged the cul- 
tivation of vocal music, in its higher relations, among all classes of people. 
It is the opinion of some, however, that the people of the United States 
are a century behind the more powerful and influential of the European 
nations in a systematic fostering of the science and art of music by the 
state; but, through the more general diffusion of knowledge by means of 
schools, the press, and other agencies, the individual efforts of Americans 
are widespread, toward imparting a more thorough understanding of that 
which is, to the vast majority of people, an unknown language; namely, 
the secret of the independent reading of vocal music with facility. 

The origin of the staff, and the use of the syllables Ut, Re, Mi, Fa, 
Sol, La, Si, seem to have been nearly contemporary. These, together with 
the clefs, notes, and chromatic signs, constitute the written language of 
music as recognized by every civilized country; and it is not 
^^^g^^^ possible to change them for the letters only, valuable as these 
are in certain relations, without disastrously revolutionizing the 
whole written system of modern music, and all its magnificent accessories. 
Large numbers of most valuable works upon harmony, counterpoint, and 
orchestral effects have been written, besides innumerable scores, with all 
of these well known musical signs, and with the employment of the syl- 
lables Utf Re, Mi, etc., as denoting absolute pitch constantly in view; and 
to reduce them to the dimensions of lettered signs simply, and require 
singers and players to translate them into music agreeable to the ear, 
would be an interminable and tedious task. The modern Italian method 
of presenting the scale through the familiar syllables Do, Re, Mi, Fa, Sol, 
La, Si, has the merit of being direct and of appealing to the ear; and it is, 
Italian ^^so, quite unique, since the syllables are at once the vehicles of 
method, variations of sound required in rendering the scale, and the 



SINGING 273 

signs dGiioting absolute pitch, like the letters to the Germans and to 
the English. So that, by this method, the pupil has to remember only 
one particular syllable, either in naming a key-note or in singing it. To 
the Italians and to the French, and to very many others who have been 
taught by this method, this association of a certain syllable with a certain 
key-note, that particular syllable being the very vehicle for the production 
of the t(jne desired, is deemed, in many respects, an advantage. The fixed 
and immovable Do becomes the middle C of the system. All other tones 
of that octave, diatonic and chromatic, revolve around it, as the planets 
around the sun. I'he major scale, with its intermediate hdf-toaes, be- 
comes the nucleus of the entire tonal system. In exact proportion as the 
scholar acquires a thorough knowledge of the scale, by regular degrees, by 

intervals small and large, by chromatic as well as by diatonic 
sale progression, and by all the varities of melodic and harmonic 

effect of which it is susceptible, will his succeeding study be 
made satisfactory and available. Multiply this knowledge of the resources 
of one scale within the compass of one octave by twelve, the number of 
independent key-notes included within the limits of the chromatic scale, 
and thereby are obtained the changes of progression possible in all the 
twelve keys, in the circle of harmony, through the transposition of the 
key-note. Now this may seem complicated to the uninitiated; but it is 
quite clear to all who have mastered the changes obtainable within the 
compass of one octave, and afterward have learned the rule of transposi- 
tion to the succeeding eleven keys. This, indeed, is the first direct business 
of the faithful musical instructor and his pupils. There is no escape from 
traveling this well-known and well-beaten road, if accuracy and a full 
comprehension of the groundwork of music be really desired. In schools 
where the very tender age of the pupils hardly admits of any extended 
course of vocal musical instruction, it is now positively ascertained that 

the association of the sounds of the major scale with the nu- 
Numerals. ^lerals 1, 2, 3, 4, 5, 6, 7, 8, is of direct and permanent use. 
Practicing fragments of the major scale, ascending and descending, by reg- 
ular degrees and in wider intervals, with frequent recurrence of the key- 
note 1 or 8, and unisonant passages, has the effect of locating the sounds 
of the scale in their exact order, and immediately secures the attention 
and the active participation of the pupils, because the order of the nu- 
merals is already familiar to them ; and, in this way, each sound of the 
scale becomes gradually associated with its corresponding numerals. If 
to the use of the numerals be added that of the syllables. Do, Re, Mi, Fa, 
Sol, La, Si, which are more musical in themselves than the numerals, there 
are obtained three indicators of the different sounds of the scale; namely, 

the letlersi the numerals, and the syllables, all of which are use- 
Leiiers, mi- ^^^ for special purposes: the letters, for denoting absolute pitch and 
'sSwS!^ the location of the key-notes, changeable only with the clefs; the 

numerals, for drilling in the plain sounds of the scale, and ulti- 
mately for practical use in the study of harmony, one and eigJd being used 
as key-notes in one or all of the twelve keys; and the syllables, for so/ -/amrjr, 
used according to the Italian method, C being always the fixed and im- 
movable Do. It is at this point that this Italian method, which recognizes 
the syllables as necessary indicators of absolute pitch, and at the same 



274 



SINGING 



time as necessary in sol-faing for the production of an equable and yet 
varied effect, differs from three other methods which are in extensive use: 
(1) from that of the Germans, who, with a special name for 
^f^Ve-i ^v^^y pl^ii^ sound of the scale, and for every augmented or depres- 
' " sed interval thereof, rely chiefly upon vocalizing with different 
vowels to secure accuracy in all chromatic as well as diatonic progressions; 
(2) from that of the United States, which quite generally, but not entirely, 
employs a movable Do as the starting-point or key-note of the major scale,! 
the key-note for any relative minor becoming La\ and (3) from that of the 
Eev. J. Curwen, the success of whose method in England has been quite 
remarkable, — a method, which is identical with that so extensively prac- 
ticed in the United States, in the use of a movable Do, but which substi- 
tutes the syllable Te for Si; the names of Mr. Curwen's syllables beingl 
Doll, Ray, Me, Fah, So, La, Te. This method of lettered and numeral* 
abbreviations, as substitutes for the staff, clefs, chromatic signs, bars, meas- 
ures, and time-table of the present musical sign-language will be more 
minutely considered further on. 

To return to the two methods which are chiefly employed in the United 
States, it is, really, very important to the beginner that he adhere to one 
method until it is thoroughly acquired. It is the united testimony of ex- 
perienced teachers of vocal music that good readers are educated 
Movabie ^^ both of these methods, provided the teacher begins, continues, 
able Do. ^^^^l ends the work of strict reading by adopting only one method 
at a time. The pupil may afterward become acquainted with 
all other methods, and with advantage; since subsequent experience will 
enable him to test the merits of the method which he most thoroughly 
understands, and which he can make most effective. To attempt to teach, 
or to learn, both methods at the same time, produces a confusion of asso- 
ciations, and a consequent bewilderment, which should be avoided. It has 
been the experience of the writer to be required to teach contemporaneously 
according to both of these methods; and, while it must be admitted that 
the method which retains the immovable Do has a unity and consistency 
which demand time for their thorough appreciation and practical use, it is 
easier, in the first stages of instruction, to change the Do with each suc- 
cessive key-note of the entire twelve. By the former method, Do is inva- 
riably associated with a certain letter and a certain line or space; by the 
latter, Do becomes the key-note, or numeral one or eight, of every one of 
the major scales. One or the other of these ways of using the 
teachimi syllables being accepted, the natural and ordinary divisions of 
elementary vocal iQdiQ\\mg'm.iot\\o?iQoi tune, time, a\\di expression 
present themselves; tune, or melodif, addressing itself more directly to the 
soul than time or rhythm, is certainly first in order in the musical education 
of the young. By common consent, the major scale, in great variety, is 
now practiced with numerals and with syllables in the primary departments 
of schools, as a preparation for the presentation of the staff, clefs, notes, etc., 
at a later period. It is a matter of no consequence whether the scale be 
based upon one particular line or space in preference to another, if the 
movable Do be used; but if it be the teacher's design to employ the Italian 
method, with its Do immovably fixed upon middle 0, it is conducive to a 
clearer understanding of the subject of the transposition of the key-note to 






SINGING 275 

start from this point. If another letter be selected as the base of the scale 
in the earlier lessons, it is necessary to return to middle C when the subject 
of transposition is introduced, and the ordinary rules for changing the place 
of the key-note by help of the sharps and flats, are fully explained. After 
some familiarity with the sounds of the major scale is acquired, a division 
of the class should be made, whereby singing in two parts can be attempted. 
This phase of elementary vocal instruction may be postponed, in teaching 
children, until a considerable knowledge of the diatonic intervals of the 
major scale has been made familiar to them. With adults, however, the 
natural division of the class of mixed voices arising from the selection of 
the soprano, alto, tenor, and base voices, each to sing in a compact body, 
and in a separate location, is obviously necessary as a measure of interest 
and advantage to all four of these parties, after the quality of tone and 
compass of each voice have been ascertained. Beating time should be 
introduced and rigidly enforced as soon as the staff and its division 
into measures by bars have been explained, especially in the simpler 
forms of twofold, threefold, and fourfold measure. The department of 
expression, with its more apparent varieties oi f^ p, mf, legato, staccato, 
rr=zizz and : -r -, may accompany the performance of the simplest ex- 
ercises, and grow with the growth and strengthen with the strength of the 
pupil as he advances toward the execution of more elaborate examples 
in melody, rhythm, and harmony. They who clog the wheels of musical 
progress with^luU and incompetent ears must gradually disappear. This 
is a rule without exception. 

Allusion has been made to the success of the Eev. J. Curwen's Tonic- 
Sol-Fa system in England, of which Miss Sarah A. Glover, with her so- 
called tetrachordal method, was the forerunner. It is claimed 
Tonic-Sol- ^-^^^ j^ ig better suited for vocal practice than the ordinary 
la «2/s^em. ^.^^^^ ^^^ ^^^y ^^ ^^^ Curwen's disciples consider it available 
for the presentation of every possible variety of music, instrumental as 
well as vocal. The syllables Doh, Bay, Me, Fah, Soh, Lah, Te, are 
pronounced as they are spelt, Te being substituted for /S^i, to avoid confusion 
with So when only the initial letter is used, as in the printed music 
the initial only is employed. To indicate the higher or lower octaves, 
ficrures are placed by the sides of the letters which stand for notes, as d^ , 
if', 7?^^ and /S'2, -^2. ^2- The tune America is presented thus: | d d r t^ 
dr mmf m r drdt^, etc. Different key-notes are announced by letter 
at the beginning, as key G, key A, etc. The key-note of the relative 
minor is always Lah. Changes of key are effected by what are called 
bridge tones. The note, or rather the letter indicating a certain sound, 
is placed side by side with the letter indicating the pitch of the letter in 
the key approached, and pupils are taught to think and sing the sound 
of the first note or letter and to call it by the name of the second. Thus 
drmfsdtd would show a modulation to the key of G. Tonic- Sol- 
Faists consider that this affords an easier mode of making modulations 
and trausitions than the older system. The chromatic scale is named by 
adding the vowel e to the initial of sharped notes, and a (aw) to flatted 
notes.* Thus de, re, fe, se, are respectively d, r, /, s sharp; and ma 
(maw), la, ta, are m, I, t flat. The sharp or augmented sixth of the mmor 
scale is called bah, to distinguish it from fe, the sharp or augmented 



276 SINGIXG 

fourth of the major scale. Time and accent are indicated by measure- 
ment across the page, thus: 

I • I . ^ J = . I '• I 

the space between one sign and the next representing the beat; the line 

showing the stronger accent, and tlie colon the weaker. Short divisions are 
indicated on halving the measure by one dot | . : and commas are used 
to divide the measure into quarters, and other divisions arc similarly shown. 
'J'he method cannot easily be understood without reference to the Tonic- 
Sol-Fa arrangement, i.e., the distinctive plan of teaching the musical facts 
indicated by the lettered notation. It is the result of laborious inquiry 
and experience on the part of iNlr. Curwen and his fellow laborers. Great 
importance is attached to the doctrine of what is called menial effect, but 
which has been previously named more properly emoUuual effect, by which 
is meant a certain coloring or impression produced by each sound of the 
scale when sung slowly. Thus doh is considered firm; te, sharp and piercing; 
lah, sorrowful; /ah, gloomy; .soh, bright and clear, etc. Teaching by pat- 
tern is also required; the scale is taught in the following order: (1) the 
notes of the tonic common chord d, in, s, or d(jh, me, soh, and their repli- 
cates; (2) the notes of the dominant common chord s, i, r, or so, ie, rai/; 
(3) the common chord of the subdominant/, /, d, or/r/7/, lah, doh, — which 
are simply the fundamental harmonies of the scale, embracing 
Modulator. ^^^ ^^^ sounds, and giving birth to the name of the system, 
Tonic-Sol-Fa. The backbone of the system, however, is the Modulatory 
without a proper use of which the method cannot be taught. 



d^ 
t 



m 



d 

ti 

li 

Bl 

f 

m 



s 


d 




V 




t 


— 


m 


f 








m 


1 


= 


r' 


r 


S 


— 


DOLI^ 

TE 


d 


f 


ta 


la 


ti 


m 


— 


LAII 

la se 


h 


r 


— 


SOH 

ba fe 


Sl 


d 





FAH 




ti 


— 


ME 


f 






ma re 


mi 


li 




RAY 


Ti 


Sl 




DOH 

ti 


di 


fi 






t2 


m 


-— 


li 


h 


r 


— 


Bl 


02 


di 





f 




to 


— 


nil 



1 — v^ 



s 


d^ 




t 


f 




m 


1 



in 



= r s d 

ti 



d 


f 




ti 


m 


li 


li 


r 


Sl 


Si 


d 


f 


f 


ti 


nil 


m 


li 


Ti 


Ti 


Sl 


di 


di 


fi 




t2 


mi 


I2 



— Ij r, So 



SOCIAL ECONOMY 



Zi t 



This Modulator is a map of the musical sounds to be read in an ascend- 
ing order, showing the scale, its minor, its chromatics, and its more closely 
related keys or scales. By familiarity in the use of this chart, the upward 
and downward motion of the notes all on one level, is gradually learned by 
the pupil. Syllables are used to show the length of the notes according to 
the French Cheve system. So taa is the name of one beat, taa-tai of a 
half-beat, and ta-fa-te-fe of quarter beats. Continuations of any kind are 
met by dropping the consonant. Sol-Faisis consider that the more intricate 
and refined of divided beats can be sooner learned in this way than in any 
other. But this Tonic-Sol-Fa-mQihodi, more than any other, requires the 
living teacher to illustrate the meaning of its signs; and it follows of course, 
that the teacher of any particular method of imparting nuisical instruction 
will best succeed with that which he most thoroughly understands. 

SOCIAL ECONOMY. The place actually held by the science of 
social or political economy, in modern education, presents a strange con- 
Place in ^"^^^^ ^"^^^^ ^^^^ which its importance demands. If the object of 
education, education is to fit the young to become self-supporting citizens 
in a progressive society, conducing at once to the happiness of 
all, while securing their own, then must the science whose special function 
is the elucidation of the conditions of man's well-being in society, rightfully 
claim a foremost place in every school curriculum. It is, nevertheless, to 
be noted that, up to the present time, instruction in this science has been 
limited to the few who attend colleges and universities, and to the pupils 
of a small number of schools, of which further mention will be made in 
the course of this article. A part of the difficulty popularly experienced 
in appreciating the proper position of this subject in the course of study 
appropriate to youth, is probably to be ascribed to the name, or rather to 
the different names which have, from time to time, been given to the 
science. The most appropriate term, of the many which have been sug- 
gested, will be fottnd, on examination, to be that under which the subject 
is here treated, — that is, the science which treats of the mannei: in which 
are regulated the affairs that relate to man in society'-, a meaning fully 
suggested by the etymology of the words. Nevertheless, this term, as 
well as the allied ntxvnQ political economy , is, op^i to suggest to the unpre- 
pared mind a science dealing with a very different set of ideas from those 
of which it treats. 

^J'he dissatisfaction which has thus arisen with the name social economy 
has led to the attempt to adopt various other forms of expression to 
. designate the science, of which attempts the happiest perhaps 
naii^' ^^^ ^^^^ ^^^ proposal to call it the "science which teaches the 
conditions of human w^ell-being". But this title is not without 
objection. In the first place, it is wanting in that terseness which is a 
main requirement in nomenclature; and, secondly, it is wanting in pre- 
cision. This expression would logically include many other sciences; as, 
for instance, hygiene, a dtie regard to the laws of which is assuredly a 
condition of human well-being. If the science had to do solely with the 
production and distribution of wealth, the term originally employed by 
Adam Smith, the father of the science, namely, the wealth of notions, 
would be specially appropriate; but, even this is inadequate; for, although 
the laws of the production and distribution of wealth influence in a mate- 



278 SOCIAL ECONOMY 

rial degree the conditions of human well-being, the science which we have 
called social economy includes also most of the moral elements that enter 
into the economy of society. The diversity of names that, from time to 
time, have been suggested, has, not unnaturally, given rise to the idea that 
there must be something especially abstruse in a science the professors of 
which have been unable to agree even upon the name by which it should 
be known. The difficulty probably arises from the modern use of the 
term economy, which has, to some extent, lost its original and etymological 
signification. Another cause of the misapprehension of the proper place 
of social economy in education, arises from the intimate relations into 
which every person unavoidably enters with the subjects it elucidates, at 
nearly every instant of his industrial life; so that all persons are unavoid- 
ably possessed of some notions on the subjects of which it treats. Now, 
as there is an infinite number of modes of error and only one of truth, it 
is only by starting rightly, and proceeding, systematically or scientifically, 
from the known to the unknown, that error can be avoided; hence, the 
T) -^ notions taken up in the course of practical life are, in the ab- 

Difficulty. ggjj(3Q Qf systematic study, generally erroneous. But it is usually 
the most ignorant who wrangle and dictate with the loudest assumption of 
knowledge; and, hence, people are led to suppose that there is a differ- 
ence of opinion on economic truths among the students of the science, and 
that, therefore, the subject must be too difficult to be understood by chil- 
dren. It is, nevertheless, true that, as ftir as regards the elements of the 
science, there is no more difference of opinion among those who have 
given systematic study to it, than there is among the students of 
mathematics upon the elementary principles of geometry. Another and 
more serious obstacle to the introduction of social economy, as a subject of 
instruction for the young, is the following. Owing to the extremely 
complex nature of human society, it is impossible to take all of its factors 
into account when investigating its elementary principles. But it is also 
true that the geometrician disregards the breadth of the line, and the 
mechanician the weight of the mechanical powers, when investigating the 
laws of magnitude in space, or the relations of forces; but as soon as the 
geometrician or the mathematician begins to apply the principles of his 
particular science to practical engineering, these discarded factors form 
data in his problems; and their effects are estimated by means of the very 
laws which were established while disregarding their existence. So with 
the laws of man in society. The laws of the production and distribution 
of wealth were investigated by rigorously excluding the sympathetic side 
of man's nature and looking upon him as purely a self-seeking being; but 
the principles of social economy can only be understood by regarding him 
from both points of view. All educators have agreed that the earlier 
years of youth must be directed to concrete, before proceeding to ab- 
stract, studies — to observation rather than to causation. While, speaking 
generally, this rule is sound, it is not to be understood as requiring the 
exclusion of the reasoning process from even infant minds ; but, because the 
reasoning faculties are comparatively dormant in early youth, knowledge 
should be obtained through observation (as for instance in natural history) ; 
and from the facts thus obtained the child should be trained to reason 
logically. Now, for this purpose, social economy presents many advau- 



SOCIAL ECONOMY 279 

tages, and this hardly less as a mental discipline than for the knowledge it 
imparts. But the teaching of science to the very young should always be 

in connection with facts or subjects presented to the senses. 

tcwesof'the^^^ instance, suppose a lesson is to be given upon 6?'eao? to 

'study, children 8 or 9 years of age. After the children have observed 

those properties which are directly cognizable to the senses, the 
judicious teacher will proceed to the more elementary of those facts 
relating to it which physics, chemistry, and physiology have made known 
to us, and Avill not shrink from gradually introducing the pupils, not- 
withstanding their youth, to the terms used by men of science in speaking 
of those facts. Instruction of this kind has, for a long while, been given 
by the best teachers, in wdiat are termed object lessons; and they have now 

only to add the facts relating to bread which are made known 

ohiect *^ ^^^ ^y. ^^^^ science of social economy to complete their coiu-se. 

lessons. They will find it far easier to adopt this course with the social 

bearings of objects than wath those which relate to physics, 
chemistry, or physiology, because many of the social facts will have been 
spontaneously and unavoidably noticed by the children themselves; and 
when once they perceive that what goes on around them at home, in the 
workshop, and in the store, has a scientific value and importance, and that 
an observation of surrounding facts and events can be used in school work, 
and have a fitting place found for it, as a help to further knowledge, 
their observation will be suddenly and wonderfully awakened, and fresh 
facts and events will be poured upon the teacher by the children them- 
selves. By this method, long before children have passed out of the pri- 
mary grades, they may bave acquired a knowledge of not only the funda- 
mental laws of the production of wealth, but morals also, as w^ell as many 
of the consequences of the division of labor, and other matters connected 
with the interchange of commodities. At an age even earlier than that 
at which it is now deemed proper to commence the study of geometry, 
that is to say, 11 or 12 years, social economy may be taught as a special 
subject; but the opportunities afforded by object lessons, of observing the 
social aspects of the objects under consideration should always be made 

available. In teaching social economy, as a special branch, to 
i ^-^^T^ scholars of from 11 to 12 years of age, the subject should, as far 
^"^^ ■ as possible, be introduced in a manner analogous to that of 
object teaching. Attention should be called to the comforts enjoyed by 
the children, and by peoi)le in general, in the country in which they live, 
— things to which they have perhaps become so accustomed that they 
have given no thought to the means by which they have been provided at 
the time and place at which they are needed to be used and enjoyed. With 
children who have not before received any instruction in the science, some 
simple object of their daily use should be noticed, and its history exam- 
ined, from the first preparation for the production of the raw material of 
which it is mainly composed, down to its distribution in the form in which 
it is required to be ready for their consumption. Such an examination 
will bring vividly before the minds of the pupils the fact that nearly all 
Tonia for ^^^^ necessaries and comforts of fife are jDroduced by labor; and 
the course then the name iveaWi, by which these products of labor are to 
of study, be thenceforth denoted, may be given to them. Industry ^ 



180 SOCIAL ECONOMY 



economy, "knowledge, and skill will next be evolved as necessary to 
individual as well as general well-being; and the division of labor will 
be examined, with its resulting enormous increase in the productive- 
ness of labor. The opportunity should then be taken to exhibit the 
groundlessness of prevailing prejudices in regard to the relative honor 
to be attached to one class of labor over another, and to point out that 
those by whom household labors are performed are as much engaged in 
the business of production as other laborers. The pupils will now be ready 
to observe with understanding the simpler phenomena of interchange; and 
then the paramount importance of honesty, truthfulness, and thorough 
trustworthiness on the part of all will be evolved and made apparent. 
While carefully avoiding all appearance of dogmatism, the teacher can 
hardly devote too much time to multiplying illustrations, and reviewing the 
investigations of the pupils, upon this head. The various forms of un- 
trustworthiness, and the consequence thereof, should be made very clear, 
nor should the subject be left until the pupils have arrived at a hearty 
detestation, not only of unsuccessful, but still more of successful, dis- 
honesty. The natural laws regulating the relations of employer and em- 
l')loyed will next be studied; and, either now or at a later period, the 
rules of trades -unions, and the effects of strikes and of combinations, 
should be closely examined; nor should the subject of wages be left until 
the pupils see clearly, that the wages which they, as sellers of their labor, 
are destined to earn, will depend almost exclusively on the productiveness 
of their labor, and that all those rules of trades-unions etc. which tend to 
diminish the productiveness of labor, of necessity, lower also the wages of 
labor. The laws determining the administration of capital will next en- 
gage their attention; the idea of profit will be evolved, and its nature 
determined with precision; the mischievous results of combinations 
among capitalists, both to themselves and to the community, will be in- 
vestigated, until it becomes apparent that the profit of the capitalist is 
the reward paid him by society for the services he has rendered, of which 
services it forms also, in most cases, an accurate measure. — Property in 
land will next claim attention, the justification for its adoption, as well as 
its just limitations, being ascertained, and the principle of rent determined. 
As the next step in the course of study, the idea of exchangeableness, 
and the name value, will be evolved. The laws which regulate value 
will then be investigated, and the necessity of precision, alike in ideas and 
the use of words, will be again impressed upon the minds of the pupils, 
and forcibly illustrated by as many examples as possible. It will now be 
time to examine into some of the means which have been adopted to facih- 
tate interchange, among which money will be seen to hold a prominent 
place; the reasons for selecting gold or silver for money will be examined; 
the impossibility of fixing the relative values of the two metals, and, con- 
sequently, the want of wisdom shown in enacting laws making both 
metals a standard of value for the same contract, will be readily perceived; 
nor will it be difficult for the pupils to discern the only proper functions 
to be fulfilled by a mint. The causes of fluctuations in the value of money 
will be next investigated, and the phenomena of price and its fluctuations 
observed. The use and functions of credit will now be inquired into, and 
the unhappy consequences of its abuse traced to their source. Now, or at 



■I 



SPANISH LANGUAGE 2S1 

a later period in the course, the causes of the so-called •' tightness in the 
money market", of business derangements, connnercial crises, and of 
panics, will be rigidly investigated and their only remedy discerned, 
namely, greater trustworthiness and honesty, to be secured by the im- 
proved teaching and training of youth. The policy of laws for the recov- 
ery of debts may now be profitably inquired into, as also the function 
which, at best, governments may hope to perform in the economy of so- 
ciety. Bills of exchange, rates of exchange, the par of exchange be- 
tween distant countries, rates of interest, banks and hanking, may all 
now, in turn, be discussed, and the want of wisdom shown by legislatures 
in the enactment of usury laws, and of laws wdiich attempt to control or 
regulate banking, may be made apparent. Paper money, and the promise 
made by the issuers thereof, the dishonesty evinced in breaking the prom- 
ise thus made, and the duty incumbent upon those who have either dis- 
honestly or ignorantly broken such promises, should be dwelt upon, and 
illustrated by examples drawn from history. Foreign commerce may 
next be illustrated, its origin and the cause of its existence observed, and 
the want of wisdom shown by those legislatures which have attempted 
improperly to interfere ■with it. — The proper mode of raising revenue, 
to be deduced in great part from the truths discovered when consider- 
ing the phenomena of rent and its progressive increase, will next be in- 
vestigated ; and the wisest methods of expenditure, both public and pri- 
vate, may then be discussed. With the consideration of all these ques- 
tions, and mainly in the order in which they are here sketched, the school 
course of study in social economy may be closed. Not, however, without 
warning the pupil that he has, by no means, mastered all the truths of the 
science, but that, if he has thoroughly assimilated the lessons he has re- 
ceived, they will suffice to direct his path in industrial life. The course 
as sketched in these pages should occupy from two to four years of the 
school curriculum, — two years, if the knowledge to be acquired is to be 
learned from books; but about four years, if the Socraiic method be 
adopted by the teacher. Another method of instruction, and one which, 
like that already indicated, has been successfully practiced, is 

)Za ^^^® division of the science into progressive problems, demonstrat- 

' ing these either on the Socratic plan or by a deductive process, 
as in the study of geometry. The former of these two plans is that chiefly 
followed in the admirable Birckbeck schools of London, which were found- 
ed and endowed by AVilliam Ellis, of that city, for the special purpose 
of introducing the science of social economy as a branch of school teach- 
ing, especially for the children of mechanics and laborers. Since the year 
1848, this instruction has been continued in these schools, and their 
example has, at last, been followed by the London school board. — For 
educational literature of this subject, see CyclopcecUa of Eclucaiion, and 
list of educational works in the Appendix of this work. 

SPANISH LANGUAGE. The Spanish language has but little 
claim to a place in the regular course of instruction, in schools and col- 
leges, in comparison with the French and German lang-uages. As Span- 
ish, however, is not only the language of one of the nations of Europe, 
but is spoken in all the countries of South America, except Brazil; and 
also in Central America, Mexico, and even in some parts of the 



282 SUPERIOR INSTRUCTION — SUPERVISION 

United States, and is thus the vernacular language of at least 60 
millions of people, practical considerations commend its study to thou- 
sands of persons, students and others, in preference to either German 
or French. Independently of this consideration, the Spanish language, 
as a school accomplishment, is not without attractions. It ranks, indeed, 
among the most euphonious of modern languages, being even preferred, 
by some linguists, to the Italian; and its literature contains many works 
of enduring interest and value. While the Spanish language presents a 
considerably larger number of non-Latin elements than either French or 
Italian, it deviates but little from these two sister languages in its structure 
and grammar. In the pronunciation of the vowels, it entirely agrees with 
the Italian. The two double consonants II and n are peculiar to the Span- 
ish, and of the English consonant sounds, z (as in zorie) is entirely want- 
ing. Though substantives have only two genders, masculine and feminine, 
the article has three, el, /a and /o; the last, which is the neuter form, being 
used to change adjectives into substantives [lo bueno, that which is good). 
The Spanish is richer than either French or Italian in augmentatives and 
diminutives; and the reflexive form of the verb is used more extensively, 
perhaps, than in any other language of Europe. The subjunctive has two 
more tenses than the Italian or French [amare, future; amara, second con- 
ditional). In words derived from Latin, the e and o of the accented penul- 
tima have frequently been developed into ie and ue, a change which in this 
class of words, gives to the Spanish an undoubted superiority in euphony 
(Spanish tiempo,fuerte; Fiench ieiiijjs, fori; Ital. tempo, forte). — The prop- 
er method of teaching Spanish does not differ from that of teaching the 
French language (q. v.). A few lessons in comparative etymology will 
greatly facilitate the study of this as of every language. If, for instance, 
the pupil learns that such combinations as cl,fl,pl, etc. in English words 
of Latin origin are often changed into II {llamar, clamor; llama, flame; 
//rmo, plain), a large number of words will, at once, be famih'ar to him. 

SUPERIOR INSTRUCTION, a term used to denote instruction of 
the highest grade, or that given in colleges and universities, both in the 
academic course, or in special or post-graduate courses. 

SUPERVISION, School, constitutes one of the most essential ele- 
ments of an efficient school system. The supervision which is necessarily 
given by the principal of the school to the work performed by his assistants 
is not here referred to, but that which is usually assigned to a superin- 
tendent of schools, whose special function it is to see that every school 
under his jurisdiction is efficient both in discipline and instruction. As a 
general rule, no extensive work employing a large number of oiDeratives, 
each performing certain prescribed duties, which contribute toward the 
accomplishment of a general result, can be carried on efficiently without 
constant supervision. School supervision is needed for two purposes: 
(1) to enforce the general rules and regulations prescribed by 
needed. ^^^^^^ authorities; and (2) to see that the proper methods of 
instruction are employed, and that the teaching is made effective. 
To attain these objects, the schools must be both inspected and examined. 
By inspection the superintendent keeps himself informed in regard to the 
discipline of the school and the methods of instruction employed by the 
teachers; by formal examinations at stated periods, he is enabled to as- 



SYMPATHY 283 

certain, to a certain extent, the actual result of the teaching, that is, its 
effect on the pupils' minds, both as to imparting information and training. 
Both of these are considered indispensable. "An inspection", as defined 
by Superintendent Philbrick, "is a visitation for the purpose of obser- 
vation, of oversight, of superintendence. Its aim is to discover, to a greater 
or less extent, the tone and spirit of the school, the conduct and applica- 
tion of the pupils, the management and methods of the teacher, and the 
fitness and condition of the premises. Good inspection commends excel- 
lences, gently indicates faults, defects, and errors, and suggests improve- 
ments as occasion requires. * * * An examination is different from an in- 
spection, both in its aims and methods. An examination is a thorough 
scrutiny and investigation in regard to certain definitely determined mat- 
ters for a specific purpose". The best methods of teaching, if not uni- 
formly and diligently employed, will not impress the pupils' minds; and 
on the other hand, the pupils may gain considerable knowledge of the 
prescribed branches of study, but not in such a way as to cultivate proper 
habits of thought. Regular examinations, besides ascertaining the merits 
and qualifications of the teachers, afford a wholesome stimulus, when judi- 
ciously and skillfully conducted, and afford a definite aim toward which 
their efforts may be directed. On the other hand, if attempted by in- 
competent and indiscreet persons, supervision of this and every other kind 
may do much harm. The qualities necessary for a good examiner are well 

defined by Supt. Philbrick: "In the first place, he should be 

Quahfica- independent, or, to speak more precisely, he should not be de- 

qoo(l pendent upon the teaching corps. He ought to have had ex- 

examiner. perience in teaching; and if he has had experience in grades 

similar to those in which he examines, so much the better. His 
mind ought to be liberalized by a wide range of educational reading and 
study. He ought to have a good deal of practical common sense. He 
should be more inclined to look on the bright side of things than on the 
dark side. He should look sharper for merits than for demerits. He 
should fear only two things: he should fear to do injustice, and he should 
fear himself. He should be eminent for good breeding, as a guaranty of 
respectful treatment from teachers and pupils. And to make sure of the 
requisite sympathy, like Burke's lawgiver, he ought to have a heart full of 
sensibility. In one word, for the successful exercise of this delicate and 
most useful function, the very best educators are demanded ". The 
objection has sometimes been urged against examinations of this kind, 
that they encourage cramming; but this will, of course, depend upon the 
character of the examinations themselves. — See Payxe, School Supervision 
(Gin., 1875). (See also Examinations.) 

SYMPATHY, an instinctive feeling of interest in, and affection for, 
others, which prompts a correspondence of emotions. Persons in sympathy 
readily discern the mental states of one another, and evince by their actions 
that they suffer, mentally, the same distress, and feel the same joy. It is 
difficult to ascertain and define the source and basis of this sympathetic 
relationship; but personal influence greatly depends upon it. It is natural 
to some persons to be in sympathy with others; they seem to exert a kind 
of positive influence, drawing and binding all around them to themselves. 
Others, on the contrary, seem to be negative in their influence; they repel 



284 TEACHER — TEACHERS' INSTITUTE 

instead of attracting. They are cold and indifferent to others; or, if other 
wise, unconsciously show that their apparent interest is feigned, not felt 
proceeding from a sense of duty, not from natural warmth of feeling 
The teacher, above all others, should be sympathetic, because so much of 
his success depends upon personal infiueuce. He should habitually strive 
to cultivate this quality, feeling assured that the measure of his professional 
skill and efficiency is the degree of sympathetic regard with which he 
inspires his pupils. (See Antipathy, and Love.) 



1 

it, I 

I 



TEACHER, a person who assists another in learning, that is, in ac- 
cjuiring knowledge or practical skill. A school-teacher's office is, for the 
most part, confined to aiding the pupil in acquiring knowledge, with the 
twofold object of (1) mental discipline, and (2) imparting valuable infor- 
mation. AMiich of these is to be considered of primary importance depends 
upon the grade of the instruction and the subject taught. Although teach- 
ing is only a part of education, the teacher should be an educator, since he 
is required to perform an oflace which bears an important relation to the 
general development, or education, of the child; and, consequently, he 
should clearly understand the nature of that relation. In other words, no 
person can be merely a teacher; he must, to be truly efficient, educate 
while he teaches. Indeed, he cannot but do so. His example, and his 
personal influence of every kind, will necessarily educate — will tend to 
form, permanently, the character of his pupil, either for good or evil. This 
consideration should determine the qualifications of the teacher, which 
should not consist merely in scholarship, book learning, or intellectual 
culture, but that assemblage of personal qualities and accomplishments 
(including scholarship) w^hich will render his influence in every respect 
effective and salutary. The requirements of a successful teacher, inde- 
pendent of intellectual accomplishments are thus summarized in a 
recently published work: "(1) The teacher must love his w'ork. (2) He 
must understand, and sympathize ^ith,the motives which govern human- 
ity — especially children. (3) The whole scope of his intercourse with his 
pupils must be to secure their co-operation and thus develop self-govern- 
ment. (4) He must plan to interest his pupils. (5) He must give them 
constant employment. (6) He must conduct his work with the utmost 
system. See Kellogg, School Management (N. Y., 1880). (See Didac- 
tics, Educatiox, and Instruction.) 

TEACHERS' INSTITUTE, the name given, in the United States, 
to an assemblage of teachers of elementary or district schools, called to- 
gether temporarily for the purpose of receiving professional instruction. 
Such meetings are held under the direction of the school authorities, 
usually the state, county, or town superintendent; and quite often there is 
a provision of law requiring the teachers employed in the common schools 
to attend, and permitting a continuance of their salaries during such 
attendance. A teachers' institute is usually conducted by an experienced 
teacher, having special skill for the work. This requires a good knowl- 
edge of the practice and theory of teaching, especially as applied to the 
ordinary branches of common-school education; it also needs ability as a 
lecturer. Teachers' institutes are designed to serve as a substitute for, or 
us complementary to, normal instruction; and as such they coiLStitute a 



TEACHERS' SEMIXARIES — TEXT-BOOKS 285 

valuable agency in connection with a system of common-school instruction. 
— See Bates, Method of Teachers' Institutes (N. Y.); and Institute Lec- 
tures (X.Y.) ; FowLE, The Teachers' Institute (N.Y.); Phelps, The Teach- 
ers Hand-Boole (N. Y.). 

TEACHERS' SEMINARIES. Schools for the education and 
training of teachers are called teachers' seminaries in Germany, Russia, 
Finland, Xorway, Sweden, Denmark, and the German cantons of Switzer- 
land; training schools, in Austria and the Netherlands; 7>re/:»ar«^o?'?/ 
schools, in Hungary; and normal schools, in France, Great Britain, Italy, 
Spain, Portugal, Greece, Roumania, the French cantons of Switzerland, 
and the United States. In Great Britain, the name training college is 
very generally used. (See Xormal Scuool.) 

TEMPER, the disposition or constitution of the mind, in relation 
particularly to the affections and the passions. Good temper implies a 
.serenity of mind, and a natural or habitual cheerfulness, which is not easily 
disturbed. It is opposed to peevishness and sullenness, which seem to be 
characteristic of certain minds. As good temper predisposes to docility, 
so ill-temper is directly antagonistic to it; hence, the educator must culti- 
vate the former in the mind of his pupil, and strive to eradicate the latter. 
In dealing with this fault, the utmost patience is requisite; since any ex- 
hibition of ill temper on the part of the educator will, from the force of 
example, as w^ell as from the additional irritation caused by it, aggravate 
the difficulty, and foster the natural failing in the pupils mind into a 
confirmed vic3. Allowance must always be made for the natural peculiar- 
ities of children; since these cannot be immediately or forcibly repressed, 
but must, by careful training, be brought under self-control, which is one 
of the earliest lessons to be taught, but one of the last objects attained in 
education. Discouragement may sometimes take the form of ill temper; 
and, in such a case, the teacher must make concessions, and give special 
attention to remove the feeling and restore confidence. A violent, irascible, 
or stubborn temper in the pupil is to be met with calmness and firmness 
on the part of the teacher; and very often the marked contrast between his 
manner and that of the pupil will serve to recall the latter to himself, and 
excite in his mind a feeling of shame at his haste or violence. Nothing 
will tend so strongly as this to cure the vice, since it really leads the child 
to punish himself for his fault. Ill temper that takes the form of obstinacy, 
is the most difficult to deal with; and it is this that Locke reserves as the 
special and only case for the use of the rod. A resort to this should not, 
however, be hastily made, and will scarcely ever be needed, if the circum- 
stances admit of persistent discipline of another kind by the educator. In 
school, unfortunately, this is not always the case, the teacher being obliged 
promptly to choose between the immediate conquest of his stubborn 
pupil, or the disorganization of his school. (See Puxishment.) 

TEXT-BOOKS, for educational purposes, are books designed to be 
used by pupils in connection with the instruction given by the teacher. 
Their purpose is threefold: (1) to aid the teacher, by affording to the pupil 
independent sources of information and instruments of study; (2) to aid 
the pupil, in acquiring habits of self-reliance in study; and (3) to enable 
the pupil to learn how to use books, as a means of self-culture. These 
objects dictate the mode of constructing school text-books; and should a\\ 



286 TOPICAL METHOD — UNIVERSITY 

be carefully kept in view by the teacher in the selection of books, so that 
they may be suited to the mental status and grade of culture of his pupils 
in reo-ard to the following points: (1) language and style; (2) arrangement 
of topics and general treatment of the subject, and (3) adaptability to the 
time and general opportunities of the pupil. The object of using text- 
books is often entirely defeated by a disregard of the first of these points. 
A text-book written in a style beyond the capacity of the pupil is not only 
useless, but positively injurious; since the pupil either becomes disgusted 
with the study and neglects it altogether, or he commits to memory the 
lauo-uao-e of the book, under the impression that he is acquiring knowledge; 
and thus his mental habits are seriously, if not permanently, vitiated. ■ — 
The following cautions should be particularly observed by teachers in the 
use of text-books: (1) the book should not be permitted to supersede the 
teacher, its use being always preceded, accompanied, and supplemented by 
oral instruction; (2) it should never be paramount, in the pupil's mind, to 
the subject, the impression being constantly inculcated by the teacher that 
it is the subject that is studied, and that the book is only an instrument 
of the study, or an auxiliary to it; (3) it should not be allowed to su- 
persede the necessity of acquiring knowledge, as far as possible, by per- 
sonal experience, particularly in elementary education. In advanced in- 
struction, it will always be found that those will use text-books most ef- 
fectively who have acquired the most knowledge without them. (See 
Okal Instruction.) 

TOPICAL METHOD. See Catechetical Method. 

TKAINING, a department of education, in which the chief element 
is exercise, or practice; the object being to impart practical skill, or facility 
in any bodily or mental operation. No teaching can be effectual that is 
not supplemented by training; that is to say, not only is the understanding 
of the pupil to be addressed, but the princix^le of habit is to be appealed 
to. (See Habit.) 

UNIVERSITY, a name first given, in the middle ages, to institutions 
for superior instruction. In the second half of the 12th century, a free 
union of students of medicine was formed in Salerno (1150), and another 
of students of law in Bologna (1158). The students had equal rights 
with the professors in these unions; which soon attracted such crowds 
that, in Bologna, the studies of medicine and theology were added; and, 
in Salerno, those of law and philoso^^hy. This was the origin of the 
modern European university. At the university of Bologna, as well as 
at the universities of Padua and Naples, which were early established, 
the study of law remained predominant, ecclesiastical and secular law 
[deer eta and leges) being eagerly studied in order to obtain high offices in 
church and state. In Paris, a university arose from the cathedral school, 
and as the chief seat of scholasticism, soon attained the rank of the fore- 
most iiniversity of western Europe. The formation of ')}ations and of 
faculties exerted a decisive influence upon the further development of the 
university. As scholars from all parts of the Christian world flocked to 
Paris in large numbers, and the government of the state took no notice 
of them, they found it necessary to form national groups for the purpose 
of self-government. Thus, the four nations of the Galileans (including 



VENTILATION 287 

Spaniards, Italians, Greeks, and Orientals), the Picards, the Normans, and 
the English (including Germans and Northmen) were formed. The 
formation of special faculties was caused by the Mendicants' orders, which 
early recognized the importance of the rising university, and, as teachers 
of theology and ecclesiastical law, assumed, in regard to the nations, an 
independent position. In consequence of the complications which were 
produced by their teaching, the professors of theology (about 1270), and, 
somewhat later, those of medicine and of ecclesiastical law, formed a union, 
and in this way organized three distinct faculties. The faculties represented, 
therefore, special sciences; while the four nations, ?is, a. continuation and 
enlargement of the former cathedral school, represented the trivium and 
the quadrivium, or the preparatory sciences. Following, at length, the 
example of the other faculties, the nations gradually transformed them- 
selves into the faculty of the liberal arts, which, for a time, occupied a 
position inferior to that of the older faculties. These developments made 
the university of Paris the great literary center of Europe; and, at times, 
it was attended by more than 20,000 students. See Cydopoedia of Edu- 
cation. 

VENTILATION". Probably no subject connected with the improve- 
ment of schools has, of late years, been more fully and earnestly discussed 
than that of ventilation. Unfortunately, however, the results reached 
have by no means corresponded in importance to the length or vigor of 
the discussion. Notwithstanding the minute and elaborate experiments 
made by modern science on this subject, it is hardly too much to say that 
the only point of agreement is, that ample ventilation is of paramount im- 
portance in the economy of the scliool room. Any recommendation of 
particular methods of effecting this, or any appeal to statistics or experi- 
mental details, becomes at once the occasion for fresh dispute. The subject 
will be considered here under the following heads: (I) The conditions 
favorable to proper ventilation; (II) The methods employed to utilize 
those conditions; (III) Some of the ways in which ventilation is pre- 
vented. 

I. Under this head, wiU be considered (1) the sources from -which a 
proper supply of fresh air for the school room is to be obtained, and the 
quality of air so obtained; and (2) the determination of the quantity 
needed by each pupil for purposes of respiration. That the great reser- 
voir of the outer air which surrounds the school room is the only proper 
source of supply for the lungs of its inmates, requires no demonstration; 
the only question, being that which concerns its purity. The 
Fresh air. ^{^ect and intimate connection which has been ascertained to 
exist between the air which we breathe and the blood, has been found to 
extend to the brain, and healthful intellectual activity and pure air are 
now almost convertible terms. Whatever causes, therefore, tend to viti- 
ate the air surrounding the school building should be carefully eliminated. 
(Concerning the proper site of the school building, as regarded from a 
sanitary stand-point, see Hygiene, School.) Another cause which, in 
certain sites, and, at certain seasons of the year, in any site, may affect 
the quality of the air introduced into the school-room, is the height above 
the ground from which it is drawn. The danger to be apprehended from 



288 TEXTILATIOX 

malarial fever, one of the most insidious foes of the human race detected 
by modern sanitary science, has led recent writers on the subject of venti- 
lation to recommend that the inlet for fresh air be placed as high as pos- 
sible, so that the lower stratum of air — that near the ground or from the 
cellar — be not admitted. 

Much of the difficulty which attaches to the subject of ventilation, 
arises from the fact that medical men who have given special attention to 
the matter, are by no means agreed as to the amount of pure 
t <wae ^^^' needed by each person for purposes of respiration; their 
* estimates of the number of cubic feet of space required by 
each pupil in the school room where the ventilation is ample, varying from 
300 to 1,200. From a comparative examination of various estimates, it 
appears that the average amount of fresh air required by each individual 
hourly is at least 1,000 cubic feet. In school rooms provided with ade- 
quate means of ventilation, this requires, according to most sanitarians, at 
least 300 cubic feet of space for each pupil. This, though hardly above the 
minimum, exceeds, probably, in a majority of cases, the most liberal allow- 
ance made by those school officers who pride themselves on their generosity 
in this respect. Usually, the allowance is less than 110 cubic feet. The 
quantity of air, also, admitted by the ventilating apparatus, bears a con- 
stant relation to the size of the room. Says Dr. A. N. Bell on this point, 
" The smaller the space, the greater the necessity for, and the larger the 
opening required for, the admission of fresh air. ^ ■^' * It has been calcu- 
lated that, with ordinary exposure, an open space equal to 5 inches in the 
square, will admit the passage of 2,000 cubic feet hourly; this, of course, 
implies that there should be an equal amount of open space for the escape 
of the air displaced". 

II. In considering the different methods of ventilation, attention 
should, at the same time, be given to the method of warming the school- 
room; since the two subjects are almost inseparably connected. 
ventUation '^^^^ entrance of warm air into a room for breathing purposes, 
" is inevitably attended by, and naturally suggests, a correspond- 
ing exit of vitiated air, and points unmistakably to the resulting current 
as the most efficient means for ventilation. If the question were nierely 
that of determining the easiest way of replacing a certain amount of im- 
pure, by a corresponding amount of pure, air, the problem would be one 
of easy solution ; since the difference of temperature which generally exists 
between the outer air and that of the school room furnishes the condition 
most favorable to ventilation, the only agent needed being a connection 
between the two, which is readily supplied by an open door or window. 
In summer, this method, which may be called the natural one, is in almost 
universal use, and is accompanied generally with satisfactory results. In 
winter, however, the violent displacement of one atmosphere by the other, 
Avhich results from the greater difference in their temperature, and which 
immediately begins when a connection is made between them, makes itself 
felt in the shape of dangerous drafts. The problem for the inventor, 
therefore, is how to produce this change of air without any perceptible 
draft; and to this additional condition, is to be attributed the practical 
failure of so many ingenious devices which, in theory, are admirable. One 
of the simplest and most effective methods of ventilation is used in connec- 



VENTILATION 289 

tion with the method of warming described under the head of school hy- 
giene. (See Hygiene, School.) It consists of a chimney with two flues, 
one for the fire, the other for ventilation. The latter is separated from 
the former by a partition of metal which becomes heated by the air from 
the fire, and, by warming the column of air in the ventilating flue, causes 
it to ascend, tending thus to produce a vacuum, which the vitiated air of 
the room flows in to fill. The ventilating flue has two registers, one near 
the floor, the other near the ceiling, both of which can be controlled at 
pleasure. A more economical method consists in making a ventilating 
flue only, but making it sufficiently large to permit the passage of the 
stove pipe along its middle line, while leaving considerable air space 
around the latter. By extending the stove pipe to the top of the house, 
the heat of the stove is used, as in the previous case. If the room is 
warmed by an open fire, the increase in the amount of fuel used should be 
charged to the account of ventilation, and the additional expense incurred 
should not be regarded as a violation of the laws of economy, but rather as 
an observance of the provisions of that true economy which does not look 
for immediate and petty results, but is fundamental in its action, and 
conducive to the permanent benefit of teacher and pupil. For combined 
ventilating and warming purposes, in small school rooms, the open grate 
fire has many advantages; but, of course, it should be carefully screened. 
For more elaborate methods of ventilation, with modifications to suit cir- 
cumstances, see the works quoted in the Appendix of this work, in which 
the subject is exhaustively treated. 

III. The great importance of effective ventilation, to which it is ex- 
ceedingly probable that the public mind is not yet sufficiently aroused, and 

the practical difficulty which attends it when any but the 

iionsand ^i^^P^^^^ means and appliances are used, render it necessary to 

defects. Kiake some mention of the ways in which proper ventilation is 

thwarted, even when it is apparently provided for. These are 
principally two: (1) a ventilating apparatus, originally inadequate in size, 
or, if adequate, the ineffective working of it, through frequent derange- 
ment; (2) the overcrowding of the school room after the originally liberal 
estimates for air supply, based on a smaller number of pupils, have been 
made. Insufficient apparatus, from either the first or second cause men- 
tioned above, is one of the commonest difficulties with which intelligent 
school officers have to contend; so easy is it for any one, in the absence of 
decidedly bad results, to lose sight of the essential conditions of a healthy 
school room, and so clamorous is the tax-payer usually for smaller demands 
upon his purse. In the compromises which generally follow these contests 
between the pocket and the lungs, it is too often found that the greater 
concessions have been made by the latter. In the second case — that of 
overcrowding — the same deleterious effects follow, insufficient air space 
being the evil in both. Even intelligent teachers are, in this way, fre- 
quently deceived. The number of pupils is increased so gradually that the 
evil is for a long time unsuspected, and not till its effects have declared 
themselves in some unmistakable, and perhaps fatal, manner, is attention 
called to the probable cause. As has been said, the air provided for 
breathing purposes should be drawn from out-of-doors, at a height above 
the ground sufficient to preclude all danger from exhalations, and should 



290 VOICE 

be introduced into the room at the opposite end from that at which the 
impure air passes out, and at the top of the room, but in such a way as to 
prevent drafts. This is best done by providing a number of small aper- 
tures, the air from which passes through the vitiated air of the room in 
numerous small currents which are imperceptible, and which cause the 
fresh air to be evenly diffused. If warmed by a cellar furnace, it should 
not be introduced into the room by floor registers, since these are always, 
more or less, traps for dust, which thus, in some shape, is liable to be 
taken into the lungs. The ventilating apparatus should not only be suf- 
ficiently large at the outset, but should be thoroughly tested . before it is 
introduced, so as to ascertain whether its working sustains the theory of 
its construction, and should be carefully examined, from time to time, with 
the view to secure its constant efficiency. — For literature of this subject, 
see the Appendix of this work. 

VOICE, Culture of the. The human voice may be considered as 
the audible expression of the mental and physical characteristics of its 
possessor; and, therefore, no means employed in the varied processes of 
education are of more importance than those that have regard to its 
culture. Its powers are often widely misunderstood and mis- 
the^mce ^PP^^^^' sometimes abused and destroyed. In the very begin- 
ning of education, large numbers of boys, in addition to marked 
inherited peculiarities, such as defective ears, weak lungs, asthmatic and 
husky bronchial tubes, contracted chests, elongated palates, and inflamed, 
swollen tonsils, are permitted to indulge in the pernicious habit of loud 
shouting and hurrahing, and in the baneful and distressing use of the chest 
tones, so frequently heard in the singing of male pupils. Every boy should 
be made to understand that if he thus abuses his voice, he must not expect 
to overcome his constitutional defects, or retain a tone which, even by as- 
siduous practice, will become agreeable to his audience, in reading, decla- 
mation, or vocal music. Girls, while in many instances they have all the in- 
herited disadvantages above referred to, present, through their more deli- 
cate organization and guarded habits, far more promising material for the 
production of purely musical effects. Parents and teachers may well take 
warning, also, in the education of either boys or girls, against a long- 
continued strain upon their vocal chords. Many a young voice has been 
completely ruined by this untimely forcing of the powers of the youthful 
candidate for declamatory or musical honors. A child five years of age, 
for example, is placed on a chair, to amuse a large audience by speaking or 
singing in a forced utterance, and with an unnaturally loud chest tone, 
entirely beyond its years, or powers of endurance. Such a tax upon its 
vocal chords, if long continued, is exceedingly injurious. The medium or 
falsetto tone, that most mellow, most musical, most sweet and expressive 
part of the female voice, or of the unchanged voice of the boy, gradually 
deteriorates, and is finally lost by this injurious process. The remedy for 
this destruction lies in the early protection of the health, and in 
Bemedy. ^^iq careful use of the young voice, at home, in school, in the 
church, and wherever there is any danger of this overstraining of its 
powers. The vocal exercises should be within a limited compass, — neither 
too high nor too low. All forcing of the voice should be positively for- 
bidden and avoided; and each lesson should come to a close without fatigue. 



VOICE 2M 

An easy and systematic mode of breathing should be an early acquisition, 
since it lies at the foundation of all success in singing, as well as in speak- 

ing. Tone, of itself , being nothing more nor less than breath, 
produced ^^ ^'^ ^^ motion through contact with a sonorous body, it is 

important to know, to some degree at least, the character of 
the organs which enter into the production of vocal tone. All culti- 
vated speakers and singers are conscious of a thorough employment of 
the abdominal muscles, and of those of the diaphragm, in order to secure 
complete control of the breath. Inhaling, however, may be carried to 
excess, a result well known to professional dramatic vocalists, who often 
protect themselves against rupture by wearing shoulder braces, trusses, 
and abdominal supporters. Exhaling involves that careful use of the 
diaphragm, which keeps the intercostal nerves and muscles in a state of 
tension, in order that the lungs may have their fullest play. To know 
when and where to inhale and to exhale, is as necessary to the speaker, in 
his written or extemporaneously delivered sentences, as it is to the singer, 
in the enunciation of his musical phrases; and, in such case, it assumes the 
dignity of consummate art, — an indispensable and prime necessity to the 
conscientious interpreter of either classic language or classic music. With- 
out ease, sustained repose, and a method made effective through long habit, 
in the management of the breath, all subsequent a.ttention to details in the 
art of speaking or singing is measurably lost. Demosthenes, with pebbles 
in his mouth, declaiming to the winds and waves on the sea-shore, and 
Braham, lifting up his voice amid the hills and forests of Northumberland, 
may profitably be remembered and imitated by all students who desire to 
remedy defects, and to acquire new breathing power. — A graceful attidude, 
and thorough skill in the proper use of the breath being gained, the close 
sympathy always existing between the bronchial tubes and the stomach 
next demands attention. A rapid and complete digestion is esteemed by 
all intelligent persons the greatest of physical blessings; and to no one is 
it a more necessary condition of success than to the public speaker or 
singer. So important is this to the professional vocalists, that those times, 
in the daily routine of duty, which find the lungs and bronchial tubes freest 
from the oppression arising from sympathy with the stomach, in its process 
of digestion, should be selected for practice. Proceeding upward toward 
the organs of articulation, we arrive at the trachea, or windpipe, the larynx, 
and the pharynx. It is- a prolific subject of discussion among speakers 
and singers, whether the character of the tone depends as much upon the 
size of the lungs, the bronchial tubes, the windpipe, the larynx, and the 
pharynx, as it does upon the condition of the muscles and nerves, and 
more remotely still upon the general organization, temperament, will, and 
endurance of the speaker or singer. It is surprising to notice the compass 
and the variety of tone which the larynx can produce, by using the vowels 
alone. Beginning with the lowest sounds of the base voice, and ascending 
in regular order through its limits, of one and a half or two octaves; 
through the compass of the baritone, with a similar register, though some- 
what higher in pitch; and, successively, through the registers assigned to 
the tenor, contralto, mezzo-soprano, and soprano voices, there is embraced 
Bass ^ compass of four octaves of available tones susceptible of cul- 
voice. tivation to an almost infinite degree of excellence. Bass 



292 VOICE 

voices confine themselves mainly to the use of the chest tones through- 
out their entire register; but the barytones, by a prudent use of the 
somber tone, and of the medium register, greatly increase the pure quality 
and flexibility of the higher portions of their voices. For the orator or 
declaimer, there is no quality of tone comparable to that of the orotund 
base or barytone voice; and, in the oratorio and opera, it is assigned to 

characters of inherent dignity and force. The tenor voice, un- 
lenor. doubtedly, demands a combination of native and acquired 
qualities, which, in some countries, are exceedingly rare. In its uncultivated 
state it is thin, reedy, and somewhat nasal; but steady, persevering practice 
upon the open vowels ah, oh, and oo, soon corrects this defect, and renders 
the tenor, of all male voices, the most tender and expressive. Great care 
should be exercised by tenor voices, lest the clear timbre of the chest tone 
be carried too high, thereby crushing out the delicacy of the real medium 
register, which is the most flexible and available part of the tenor voice. 

The contralto, mezzo-soprano, and soprano voices encounter a 
Conlralto gjj^jjjj^j, difficulty, at the very outset of their practice, in combin- 
* ing the chest with the falsetto or medium voice. While this 
difficulty occurs in the higher register of the male voice, it is found in the 
lower register of the female voice, and presents obstacles in the way of 
cultivation, which nothing but long and persistent practice can overcome, 
though the strain upon the nervous system is far less than that experienced 
by the male voice. The contralto yields to no other female voice in depth 
and richness of tone, as is clearly evident after listening to singers like 
D'Angri and Alboni. Naturally not so flexible as the soprano or mezzo- 
soprano, it is yet endowed with a wonderful power in causing effects 
replete with the most ardent passion, and with the most noble womanly 
feeling. There is a great temptation to abuse the lower register of the 
contralto voice by indulging in the disagreeable habit of forcing the chest 
tones to a point bordering upon masculineness, if not positive coarseness. 
The practice of descending runs, diatonic and chromatic, using the medium, 
veiled, or somber tone, will gradually change this objectionable habit. 
There are not wanting cases, also, of contralto voices which have been 
destroyed by attempts to cultivate the tone and compass of the soprano, — 
a process absurd and unnatural to the last degree. Notwithstanding the 
efforts of some late authors to ignore the division of the female voice into 
at least three different registers, namely, the chest, the medium or falsetto, 
and the head; these registers are now generally recognized by the 
highest and most competent authorities. Elaborate methods 
decelomient ^^^^ studies for the development of the contr.ilto, mezzo- 

' soprano, and soprano voices have been devised with these 
three divisions constantly in view. Some even assert that there are 
five distinct registers, requiring as many different modes of producing the 
tone, — a condition of the larynx and pharynx suggesting an expertness 
in the management of the voice which may well be deemed bewildering. 
It is, however, too certain to admit of a doubt, that the voices of the 
most accomplished female vocalists living have been trained by recognizing 
this division into the chest, medium or falsetto, and head registers, and are, 
moreover, preserved in their wonted availability by adhering to the same 
method. Allusion has been made above to the pharynx, or arched chamber 



VOICE 293 

immediately back of the palate, which is a most important modifier of the 
voice in its passage from the larynx, and the expansion and contraction 

ot which gives greater or less volume of tone, especially if the 
vharmix ^^^^ ^^ ^^^^ tongue be not artificially enlarged, so as to produce 

an impure throailness of tone, frequently heard in voices im- 
perfectly cultivated and badly managed. To know the important influence 
of a healthly pharynx under complete control, it is only necessary to com- 
pare the voice of one possessing it, to that of a vocalist suffering with a cold 
in the head, or with a catarrhal affection and swollen tonsils. The dif- 
ference in the clearness of the vibrations, and in the diffusive character of 
the tone, is very perceptible and marked. A clear knowledge of the 
organs which are employed in producing a vocal tone, and of the proper 
combination of the registers to secure power, purity, and equality through- 
out the entire vocal compass being gained, the organs of articulation 

present themselves for particular consideration; and this leads 
lation directly to the subject of musical elocution. System and facility 

in breathing, the employment of all the proper organs, in their 
healthy condition, for the production of a pure tone, expertness in reading 
music, and the miimtest attention to attitude and gesture, will all fail to 
produce an impression worth remembering, unless a true conception of 
the meaning of the w^ords and music, a bold enunciation, a distinct articula- 
tion, a well-rounded phrasing, and an accurate intonation be added to the 
acquirements of the finished vocalist. Conception relates to both words 
and music. If it be necessary for the speaker to study well the significa- 
tion of words, in order to get at the true meaning of the poet, it is even 

more necessary for the singer to do so; since the effect of melody 
Loncepiion. ^^^ harmony upon all persons, is such as to deprive them, 
measurably, of the power, for the time being, of judging of the signification 
of words. The singer who rests upon the simple effect of his melody, is 
certainly as weak as the speaker who relies upon his manner of uttering 
fine language, rather than upon the strength of the ideas involved. A 
true conception, it is hardly necessary to add, is the rarest of possessions 
among modern vocalists. Pronunciation, in its musical connection, not 
only implies that enunciation, or careful throwing out of each syllable 

ancl word which good speech and declamation require, but also 
Pronnn- ^j^^^^ which, not particularly recognizing the inflections of reading 

or declamation, is entirely absorbed in the far more permeating 
channel of sound, a melody or recitative song according to a given key or 
scale. Dr. Rush alludes to this as the special advantage which the singer 
has over the speaker. Slowness and quickness of utterance are also con- 
trolled, to so great a degree, in music, by the relations of the notes, the 
bar, the fractional measure-marks, and words indicating varieties of move- 
ment, that there is left less liberty to the singer than to the speaker, in 
many respects. But such curtailment of liberty (which liberty, by the 
way. is often a clog to inexperienced speakers), and, by consequence, greater 
concentration upon the characteristics of the melody, only tie the singer 
to a more vivid conception of the subject, and to a more distinct pronuncia- 
tion of the words. For the correction of marked in elegancies of pronuncia- 
tion, whether of foreign or native growth, no means are so effective as the 
careful study of the classic languages, together with the study of the prin- 



294 VOICE 

cipal modern languages taught by native professors. Of these latter, the 
Italian is most musical in itself, and, therefore, is most useful to the music- 
al student, whose pronunciation of his native language, particularly if he 
be English or German, will be vastly improved by often reading and 
singing in the most euphonious of modern languages. Of distinct articu- 
lation, it may in general be said, that the vowels only are sung while the 
consonants are articulated; in other words, that the vowels are sung, and 
the consonants are spoken. In vocalizing alone, the larynx, obedient to 
the mind and will, performs unassisted.save by the lungs, trachea, pharynx, 
and diaphragm, all those changes which promote power, purity, sweetness, 
and flexibility of tone. Some slight changes in the position of the jaws, 
tongue, and lips are necessary in vocalizing Avith ah, ee, oh, and oo; but 
only the consonants, as initial, intermediate, or final letters, require a 
constant and vigorous use of the tongue, teeth, and lips, which are the chief 
agents in acquiring an effective articulation. FuU respirations should be 
the rule, and partial respirations the exception. In plain music, where 
one or two notes are appropriated to a syllable, the article should not be 
separated from the noun or qualifying adjective, nor the adjective from the 
noun, by a separated breathing; nor should the syllables of a word be 
separated. Long diatonic or chromatic runs, m^^e^^zos, trills, and cadenzas, 
must, however, be executed with an unbroken continuity of the musical 
phrase. The orotund basso or barytone, as well as the rich and deep con- 
tralto, require to be particular in their articulation, in order to be heard, 
since the very fullness of their voices produces a resonance not easily over- 
come in large assembly rooms. Goodi phrasing implies good singing; such 
a knowledge of the composer's idea on the part of the singer, as shall not 
. mar, to say the least, either the poetic or musical symmetry of 
tirasing. ^yj^^^ jg sung. The singer should be able to analyze the phrases 
he sings, in order that, in melodic and harmonic construction, he may dis- 
cover where they begin, how they progress, and where they end. But, if 
he cannot do this, he should be able, intuitively to grasp a musical passage 
to the fullest extent of its melodic proportions, and spontaneously to pre- 
sent it with such accessories as shall make it appear his own. All the 
bright coloring which may be imparted by a vivid conception, a good 
pronunciation and articulation, will be seriously dimmed by defective 
phrasing. Last, but by no means least, there must be the accurate intona- 
tion which is the result of a correct ear. Some persons do not hear cor- 
rectly, concords becoming to them discords. Whether it be a local dif- 
ficulty of the tympanum, or, as is more probable, a rigidity of the entire 
organization and sluggishness of temperament, the fact is obvious that de- 
fective ears are by no means uncommon; and, of course, to imi- 
correctear *^*? musical sounds with the voice, in such cases, is an impos- 
sibility. The commonness of the defect increases, as we descend 
in the scale of social being, particularly where, in addition to poverty 
and moral degradation, there is superadded the prolific cause, absence of 
youthful opportunities of hearing music well sung or played. Could all 
classes, without exception, be gladdened, when young, by hearing music 
correctly sung and played, the number of those who pass through life un- 
moved "by the concord of sweet sounds", would be much diminished. It 
is important, also, that the sounds heard by children, be correct both as to 



WORD METHOD — WORDS 295 

melody and rhythm, if it be expected that such children, when grown, 
shall have a so-called good ear for music. In remarking upon articulation, 
the value of the vowel sounds ah, ee, oh, and oo was noticed; and it is known 
that a thorough scale, and rhythmical use of these, combined with all the 
consonants as initial and final letters, will not only develop a more distinct 
articulation, but also a purer, more effective, and manageable tone. For 
standard authorities, on this subject, see Cydopoedia of Education. 

WORD METHOD, a term applied to the analytic method of teach- 
ing children to read. The process consists of using short words instead of 
letters in the first .lessons, the pupil learning to recognize and pronounce 
these words, and sometimes to read easy sentences, before learning the names 
of the letters. When a sufficient number of words have been learned, the 
pupil is shown their composite character, and taught the names and sounds 
of the letters which form them, thus learning the alphabet. In this proc- 
ess, care should be taken to select appropriate words, and present them in 
a progressive manner, as: cat, rat, hat, mat, — man, fan, can, — dog, log, 
etc. The pupil, in this way, perceives the power of each letter, and soon 
learns to spell and pronounce words, after which the synthetic method 
may be employed. (See Alphabet Method.) 

WORDS, Analysis of. The analysis or resolving of words into 
their elementary parts, is an important branch of the study of languages, 
the native as well as foreign. In ordinary school parlance, this branch is 
sometimes styled etymology, since the analysis comprehends not only an ex- 
planation of the meaning of each of the parts of a word — both root and 
affixes, but a knowledge of the derivation of these. For elementary school 
purposes, however, it should be borne in mind that the latter is of 
secondary importance. In the study of the native tongue, it will be 
acknowledged, the importance of training pupils to analyze compound and 
derivative words can hardly be overestimated. The fact that 
Ke^f d ^^^ English language derives about one-half of the words in ordi- 
^* nary use from the Latin, renders exercises in word analysis, of far 
greater necessity for the study of English, than for that of most other 
languages. That, without being trained in this analysis, pupils will 
scarcely be able to grasp the true meaning of English words, probably no 
experienced teacher, at present, will be inclined to dispute. To very many 
of the pupils Avho are merely drilled in spelling and reading, the force 
even of the most common Anglo-Saxon prefixes, like a, he, en, etc., and of 
suffixes, like dom, hood, ship, etc., must remain unknown. How many, 
for example, will be able to infer the meaning of for or fore in forswear 
and forego ? The knowledge of the Latin prefixes and suffixes, even in 
the words of ordinary life, will be acquired with still greater difficulty by 
pupils not sufficiently trained in word analysis. On the other hand, only 
a slight knowledge of the simplest Latin prefixes, as: ad, con, pre, pro, 
sub, etc., affords a key to the distinctive meaning of a large number of 
words. It is, therefore, a matter of gratification to find that, at present, 
this branch of study is scarcely ever entirely omitted from the common- 
school course of instruction. 

In regard to the method of teaching word analysis, it may justly 
be said that there are few subjects taught in elementary schools to 



296 WOKDS 

which the fundamental principles of the developing method can so eas- 
ily, and with so much advantage, be applied as to this. At whatever 
stage of the pupil's progress the instruction may begin, provided 
'^^teachina ^ knowledge of reading and writing has been acquired, the 
number of words already learned, will be found ample for 
the first and easiest exercises. Hardly any arbitrary memorizing is 
needed, since, if the teacher follow a natural course, he will only have 
to develop the knowledge already in the child's mind. Thus, children, 
even in the lowest grades, knowing the meaning of words like teacher and 
preacher, will not find the least difficulty in understanding that er, in 
both these words, means one who, and in perceiving that these words mean, 
respectively, one who teaches, and one ivho preaches. Nine-tenths of a class 
of pupils, of ordinary intelligence, will now readily find, among the words 
they are accustomed to use, several others in which the suffix er has the 
same meaning. They will not only fully comprehend this initiatory les- 
son, but they will feel a manifest delight that one simple explanation has 
so greatly added to their knowledge of the meaning of words. The intelli- 
gent teacher will not fail to perceive that the more closely he is able to 
accomodate his teaching to the knowledge of the words which belong to 
the pupils' own vocabulary, the more rapid will be their progress, and the 
more intense will be the interest which they will take in the new study. 
It is obviously a point of great importance that the first examples of pre- 
fixes or suffixes that are presented, should fully illustrate their general 
meaning. Thus, the word teacher would be a better selection for this 
purpose than grocer; sailor, better than tailor; and repay, better than 
receive. In the further progress of the study, it is important that the 
most common prefixes and suffixes should be learned before those of rarer 
use. It shows a great lack of pedagogical tact in a teacher to drill his 
pupils on preter, suhter, and retro, before they know the meaning of sub, 
con, and in. A more difficult stage of this branch of study, is that which 
treats of the Latin roots, and their use in English words. Here, 
roois ^^^1 ^ strict adherence to the principle that we should proceed 
from the " known to the unknown" — from an analysis of what 
is already in the pupil's mind to that which is new, will guide the teacher 
with unerring certainty on the right path. For example, a judicious 
teacher who desires to familiarize his pupils with the derivates from the 
Latin root due or duct (from duco), will not, at first, select such words as 
induct, inductive^ supeinnduce, etc., or even words like adduce, conduce, 
deduce, before his pupils have learned to analyze words of a more obvious 
meaning; as introduce, produce., reduce, aqueduct, viaduct, etc. What is 
here meant is, that the first lessons in this kind of analysis should concern 
only those words the meaning of which may readily be explained by 
showing the meaning of their parts. In every subject of instruction, the 
order of presenting the various matters which are to be learned by the pu- 
pil, is of vital importance; but in none is it more essential than in the 
etymological analysis of words. The numerous class of words which can- 
not be explained, except by the history of their formation (such as ambi- 
tion, candidate, chancellor, peculiar; also sycophant^ gazette, quarantine, 
Greek ^^^•) should be reserved for a higher grade of this study. The 
roots, analysis of words derived from the Greek, should follow that 



ZOOLOGY 297 

of words derived from Latin roots; and the discussion of the etymolog- 
ical affinity of the words of different languages should be reserved for 
that stage of the course of studies which comprehends comparative philol- 
ogy. — For list of works on this subject, see Supplementary List in the 
Appendix. (See also English, the Study of.) 

ZOOLOGY (Gr. C,(Jov, an animal, and 16yo^, a discourse) treats of the 
structure, classification, habits, etc., of animals. It is an important branch 
of descriptive natural science, or natural history, and usually forms a part 
of the course of study in various grades of schools. In element- 
Uiftraction ^^^^ instruction, it constitutes, with its sister science, botany. 
' one of the most effective and available subjects for training- 
the observing faculties; and, hence, is often comprised in the course of 
instruction prescribed for common schools. This subject has peculiar 
attractions for children; since, as is well known, they invariably manifest 
a deep interest in animal life. The principles by which the teacher 
should be guided in giving instruction in this, as in other branches of 
natural science, have been to some extent explained in previous articles. 
(See AsTROxoMY, and Botany.) In teaching zoology, care must be partic- 
ularly taken to exhibit as much as possible the natural objects them- 
selves; and, in elementary teaching, this comes first. That is to say, the 
pupils are not to be required to commit to memory dry definitions and 
formulated statements; but their minds should be brought in contact with 
the living realities. In this way an interest in the study will be created 
without which no real progress can be made. After a considerable amount 
of discursive observation, so that the child's mind has become stored with 
conceptions, a more systematic treatment may be commenced, approaching 
the elements of classification, the pupil being gradually made to perceive 
the distinctions upon which the classification depend.s. In order to fix 
these destinctions in the mind, well-known animals may be taken as types: 
?i.^ {c\?iSis,\) mnn, monkey, hat, cat, rat, horse, deer, coio, whale; (2) eagle, 
jxirrot, canary, rooster, ostrich, snipe, duck; (3) turtle, alligator, rattle- 
snake, frog; (4) perch, cod, shark, Qtc.\ (5) bee, hutterjiy, beetle, etc.; (6) 
spider, crab; (7) squid, snail, oyster; (8) starfish, jellyfish, coral. Thus 
the classes, orders, and genera may be illustrated very clearly, and in an 
interesting manner. 

At first it is better to use the simple English vocabulary than to trouble 
the mind of the young pupil with the difficult, and to him unmeaning, 
scientific terms; as four-handed instead of quadrumana, gnawers for 
rodent ia, sci^atchers, for rasores, two- winged for diptera, etc. In this 
elementary instruction, it is not necessary that the classification should 
include species and variety, in some cases not even genera; but in describ- 
ing an animal it is proper to require the pupil to mention the cfass, order, 
family, and genus, and in this order. 

Great care should be taken, as in aU science teaching, to have the pupil 
depend as much as possible upon his own observation for the facts used; 
an^l. as in botany, the schedule system may have a modified or limited 
application in teaching this subject. Microscopic examinations of a simple 
kind may also be resorted to in order to increase the interest of the pupil, 
and kindle a desire for closer research. 



298 



ZOOLOGY 



In the higher grades of instruction, the three different departments of 
the science — morphology, physiology, and distribution, should systematic- 
ally be treated. In every grade of instruction, however, the 
i siniciion ^^^^^^^ ^^ professor cannot too closely follow the principle 
"laid down by Huxley: "The great business of the scientific 
teacher is to imprint the fundamental, irrefragable facts of his science, 
not only by words upon the mind, but by sensible impressions upon the 
eye, and ear, and touch of the student, in so complete a manner, that 
every term used, or law enunciated, may afterwards call up vivid images 
of the particular structural, or other, facts which furnished the demon- 
stration of the law, or the illustration of the term". Moreover, every 
teacher should bear in mind that a good share of his own knowledge 
should be at first-hand — acquired by his own observation, not simply 
gleaned from books — or he will not succeed in awakening an interest in 
the minds of his pupils. The proper method of teaching this subject has 
been clearly shown by one of its greatest masters. See Huxley, On the 
Study of Zoology, in The Culture demanded by Modern Life. (X. Y., 
1867.) (See Science, the Teaching of.) 



APPENDIX. 



A SELECT LIST OF 



EDUCATIONAL WORKS, 



ENGLISH, FRENCH, AND GERMAN, 



ARRANGED BY 



W. H. PAYNE, M. A., 

Professor of the Science and the Art of Teaching 

IN THE TTnIVERSITY OF MICHIGAN. 



299 



THE DICTIONARY OF EDUCATION AND INSTRUCTION 



"A true university in these days is a collection of books." 

Carlyle. 

"If the soul of a library be its librarian, its heart is the 
catalogue." Gentleman's Magazine. 

"If you are troubled with a pride of accuracy, and would 
have it taken completely out of you, print; catalogue.'- 

Stevens. 



CONTENTS. 

I. WORKS OF REFERENCE. 

II. ALLIED SCIENCES. 

III. GENERAL EDUCATION. 

IV. SPECIAL EDUCATION. 
V. SCHOOL ECONOMY. 

VI. HISTORY OF EDUCATION. 

VH. MISCELLANEOUS EDUCATIONAL LITERATURE. 



NOTICE. 

This List purposely omits works that are out of print, or are privately 
printed, or otherwise difficult to obtain. On the other hand it is intended 
to enumerate — within its limited compass — publications now in the 
market that are of sufficient merit and importance. It will be revised for 
future editions, and the undersigned publishers will, therefore, be obliged 
for the suggestion of corrections and additions. 

E. STEIGER & CO. 



300 



THE DICTIONARY OF EDUCATION AND INSTRUCTION 



I. WORKS OF REFERENCE. 

Bibliographies, Catalogues, Cyclopaedias, Dictionaries, 
Books and Text-Books of Education, 



Hand 



Henry Barnard. Library of Practical 
Pedagogy. 8vo. 10 vols. — National 
System of Education. 8vo. 10 vols. 
— 400 Treatises on Educational Sub- 
jects. — 

For prices address Henry Barnard, 28 

Main St., Hartford, Conn. 

J. B. Basedow's Elementarwerk. Pin en- 
cyclopddisches Methoden- u. Bildungs- 
huch fUr alle Kindererziehung und den 
Jugend- Unio'richt in alien Stdnden. 
8vo. Stuttgart, $2,00 

H. Beyer's Bibliotliek padag-oeischer 
Classiker. Sammlung der heaeutend- 
sten pddagogischen Schnften dlterer 
und neuerer Zeit. JJnter Mitirirkiing 
mehrerer Scliubiidnner und Gelehrten 
neu hrsg. v. Pkdk. Manx, Parts 1—98. 
Svo. Langensalza. Each $0.20 

Dictionnaire de Pedagogie et d' Instruc- 
tion Primaire. Redige par T, Buisson, 
Parts 1—85. Svo. Paris, Each $0.20 
Now in progre-s of publication in parts. 
The work will probably comprise six volumes 
of about 1000 pages each, and will be the most 
valuable of its kind ever published. Contains 
a bibliography of French educational works. 

Adf. Diesterweg's AusgewdhUe Schriften, 
hrsg. V. Edit, Langkxberg. 8vo. 4 vols, 
Frankfurt a. M. $5,50 

F. A. W. Diesterweg. Wegweiser mr 
BildungfUr deidsche Lehrer. In neuer 
zeitgenidsse)' Bearheitung hrsg. von dem 
Curatonmn der Diestenceg - Stiftung 
Svo. 3 vols. Essen. $7.70 

Education and General Philology. A 

Classified Descriptive Catalogue of 
American, British, German, French, 
and other Foreign Puhlications on 
Education and General Philology; to- 
gether with Works of Reference, Teach- 
ers'' Rand- Books, etc., exclusive of Text- 
Books. Edited by E, Steiger. Svo. N. 
Y. $0.10 net. 
Encyclopadie d. gesammten Erziehungs- 
und Unterrichtswesens, hearheitet von 
einer Anzahl Schulmdnner und Gelehr- 
ten, hrsg. tmter Miticirkung v. Palmer 

U. WiLDERMUTH, V. K. A. SCHMID. 8V0. 

11 vols. Gotha. $55.75 



H. Kiddle and A. J. Schem. The Cyclo- 
pcedia of Education: A Dictionary of 
Infonnation for the use of Teachei^s, 
School Officer's, Parents, and Others. 
8vo, N. Y. Cloth, $5.00. Sheep. $6.00 
An educational library in itself, invaluable 

to every progressive teacher. 

— The Dictionary of Education and 
Instruction; A Peference Book and 
Manual on the Theory and Practice 
of Teaching, for the use of Parents, 
Teachers, and Others; based upon the 
Cijclopcedia of Education. 12mo. N. Y. 
Cloth. $1.50 

— The Year Book of Education for 

1878. Svo. N. Y. Cloth. $2.00 

— The Year Book of Education for 

1879. Svo. N. Y. Cloth. $2.00 
Padagogische Bibliothek. Sammlung 

der vncJitigsten pddagogiscTien Schrif- 
ten dlterer und neuero' Zeit. Im Ver- 
ein mil Gesinmmgsgenossen Jirsg. v. 
K. RicHTER. Svo. Farts 1 — 93. Leip- 
zig. Each $0.20 

Real-Encyclopadie des Erziehungs- nnd 
Unterrichtswesens nach katholischen 
Principien. JJnter Mitu-irkung von 
geistlichen und tceltlichen Schidmdn- 
nern fur Geistliche, Volkssclmllehrer, 
Eltern und Erzieher hearbeitet von H. 
RoLFUS u. A. Pfister, 8vo. 4 vols. 
Mainz. $10.30 

K. A. Schmid. Pddagogisches Hand- 
huchfur das Haus, die Volks-, BUrger-, 
Mittel- U7id ForthiUlungsschule. Anf 
Grundlage der ^'^Encyclopadie des ge- 
sammten Erziehungs- und Unterrichts- 
loesens'"' vi alpjhahetischer Ordnung he- 
arheitet. 8vo. 2 vols. Gotha. $8.45 

"A vast mine of information on everything 
connected with education ". Quick, 

G. E, Schott. Handhuch der Pddagogi- 
schen Literatur. Svo. 3 Parts. Leip- 
zig. $2.20 
Steiger's Educational Directory for 1^1%. 

8vo. N. Y. Limp Cloth. $1.50 
August Voffftl. Systematische Encyclo- 
padie der'Pddagogik. Ein Wegweiser 
durch das gesammte Gehiet der Erzie- 
hnng. Mit ausfUhrlicher Angahe der 
Literatur. 8vo". Eisenach. $1.50 

301 



THE DICTIONAKY OF EDUCATION AND INSTRUCTION 



II. ALLIED SCIENCES. 

Anthropology, Ethnology, Ethics, Linguistics, Metaphysics, 
Psychology, Physiology, Sociology, Political Economy. 



John Abercrombie. 

the Moral Feelings, edited and adapted 
to the use of schools by Jacob Abbott. 
12ino. N. Y. Cloth. $0.90 

Inquiries concerning the Intellectual 

Powers, edited and adapted to the use 
of schools by Jacob Abbott. 12mo. 
N. Y. Cloth. $0.90 

Aristotle. The Rhetoric and Poetics, 
and Nicomachean Ethics. Bohn's trans- 
lations. 2 vols. London. Cloth. Each 
$2.00 

Alexander Bain. The Senses and the In- 
tellect. 8vo. N. Y. $5.00 

Mind and Body. TJie Theories of 

their Relation. l"2nio. N. Y. Cloth. 
$1.50 

The Emotions and the Will. 8vo. 

N. Y. Cloth. $5.00 

S. P. Bates. Lectures on Mental atcd 
Moral Culture. 12mo. N. Y. Cloth. 
$1.50 

Fr. E. Beneke. The Elements of Psy- 
chology, on the Principles of Beneke, 
Stated and Illustrated in a Simple and 
Popular Maimer by G. Raue. Fourth 
ed. by Johann Gottlieb Dresslek. 
Translated from the German. 8vo. 
Oxford. Cloth. $3.00 
Commended by Dr. Donaldson. 

Julius H. Bernstein. The Five Senses 
of Man. 12mo. N. Y. Cloth. $1.75 

H. T. Buckle. History of Gimlization in 
England. With a complete Index. 
2 vols. 8vo. N. Y. Cloth. $4.00 

S. Butler. Unconscious Memory: A 
Comparison between the Theory o/Dr. 
EwALD and ''The Philosophy of the 
Unconditioned'''' of Dr. Edward v. Hart- 
MANN. With translations from these 
Authors, and Preliminary Chapters 
bearing on Life and Habit, Evolution 
Old and New, and Mr. Charles Dar 
win's edition of Dr. Krause's "-Eras- 
mus Darwin.''^ Svo. London. Cloth. 
$3.00 

W. B. Carpenter. Principles of Human 
Physiology. By H. Power. Svo. Illus- 
trated. London. $11.20 

Tliesame. New American from 8th 

London ed. lUustr. 8vo. Philadel- 
phia. Cloth. $5.50 Leather. $6.50 

S02 



The Philosophy o/jS. T. Coleridge. Aids to Reflection in the 
Foundation of a Manly Charactei'. 
12mo. London. Cloth. $2.10 
12mo. N. Y. Cloth. $1.50 

And. Combe. The Principles of Physi- 
ology applied to the Presei'vation of 
Health, and the Improveinent of Phy- 
sical and Mental Education. lUustr. 
18mo. N.Y. Cloth. $0.75 

Victor Cousin. Course of the History of 
Modern Philosophy. 2 vols. 12mo. 
N. Y. Cloth. $4.00 

F. W. Farrar. Chapters on Language. 
Svo. London. Cloth. $2.80 

Joseph Marie de Gerando. Histoire com- 
paree des systemes de philosophie, con- 
sideres relativement aux principes des 
connaissances humaines. 2e partie: 
Histoire de la philosophie moderne a 
partir de la renaissance des lettres jus- 
qu^a la fin du 18. siecle. 4 vols. 8vo. 
Paris. $8.61) 

F. Guizot. History of Civilization. 2 vols. 
12mo. N. Y. Cloth. $4.00 

3 vols. London. Cloth. 13.76 

E. Haeckel. Freedmn in Science and 
Teaching. 12mo. N. Y. Cloth. $1.00 

H. Hallam. Litroduction to the Litera- 
ture of Europje in, the Fifteenth, Six- 
teenth, and Seventeenth Centuries. 2 
vols. Svo. N.Y. Cloth. $2.50 

A Vieui of the State of Europe during 

the Middle Ages. 2 vols. 8vo. N. Y. 
Cloth. $2.50 

W. Hamilton. Lectures, embracing the 
Metaphysical and Logical Courses. 
2 vols. Svo. N. Y. Cloth. $7.00 
The best system of psychology, for the 

scientific study of education, with which I am 

acquainted. 

Mark Hopkins. An Outline Study of 

Man. 12mo. N. Y. Cloth. $1.75 
W. S. Jevons. Elementary Lessons in 

Logic, Deductive and Inductive. 16mo. 

London. Cloth. $0.90 
The Principles of Science. A Treatise 

on Logic and Scientitic Method. Svo. 

London. Cloth. $2.75 
Krauth- Fleming. Vocabidary of the 

Philosophical Sciences. 12nio. N. Y. 

Cloth. $3.50 
Invaluable to students of philosophy and 
educational science. 



THE DICTIONARY OF EDUCATION AND INSTRUCTION 



Albert Lemoine. V Habitude et V In- 
stinct. Elude de Psychologie Comparee. 
16mo. Paris. $0.90 

Q. H. Lewes. Problems of Life and Mind. 

5 vols. 8vo. Boston. Cloth. $14.00 
Physiology of Common Life. Tinao. 

2 vols. N. Y. Cloth. $3.00 

Sir John Lubbock. The Origin of Civ- 
ilizatio)i, and the Primitive Condition 
of Man. 12mo. N. Y. Cloth. $2.00 

J. M'Cosb. Intuitions of the Mind, in.- 
ductively investigated. 8vo. N. Y. 
Cloth. $3.00 

H. Longueville Mansel. Metaphysics; 
or, the Philosophy of Consciousness, 
Phenomenal and Heal. 12mo. N. Y. 
Cloth. $1.75 

C. Marcel. The Study of Languages 
brought back to its true Principles. 
12mo. N. Y. Cloth. $1.25 

H. Maudsley. The Physiology and Path- 
ology of the Mind. 8vo. 2 vols. N. Y. 
Cloth. $4.00 

Body and Mind: an. Inquiry into 

their Connection and Mutual Injiuence 
especially in reference to Mental Pis 
orders. \Yith Appendix. 12mo. N. Y. 
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J. 8. Mill. A System of Logic. 8vo. 

N. Y. Cloth. $3.00 
G. Moore. Power of the Soul over the 

Body, in relation to Health and Morals. 

12mo. N. Y. Cloth. $1.00 



J. D. Morell. History of Modern Phi- 
losophy. 8vo. N. Y. Cloth. $3.50 

Noah. Porter. The Human Intellect. 8vo. 
N. Y. Cloth. $5.00 

J. Ray. Mental Hygiene. 16mo. Boston. 
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H. Spencer. The Study of Sociology. 
12mo. N. Y. Cloth. $1.50 

W. Thomson. Outline of the necessary 
Laws of Thought. 12mo. N. Y''. Cloth. 
$1.50 
One of the best introductions to logic. 

R. C. Trench. On the Study of Words. 
12ino. N. Y. Cloth. $1.25 

F. Wayland. The Elements of Political 
Economy. 12mo. N, Y. Cloth. $1.75 

Abridgment for schools and acade- 
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Richard Whately. Elements of Logic. 
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W. D. "Whitney. The Life and Growth 
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G. Wilson. The Five Gate-ways of 
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R. S. Wyld. Physics and Philosophy 
of the Senses. 12mo. London. Cloth. 
($3.00) reduced to $1.50 

E. L. Youmans. The Cultwe demanded 
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$2.00 



III. GENERAL EDUCATION. 

Philosophy of Education. Science and Art of Teaching (Peda- 
Special Didactics. Home Education and 



gogy and Didactics). 
Self-Education. 



1. Philosophy of Education. 

Alexander Bain. Education as a Science. 

12mo. N. Y. Cloth. $1.75 
"Signalons an premier rang les essais de 
pedagogic psychologique, les articles recemment 
publics par M. Bain." CoMPAVRe. 

A text-book in the Science of Teaching, in 
the University of Michigan. 

F. A. P. Barnard. Early Mental Train- 
ing, and Henfrey's Lectm'e on the 
Eaucational Claims of Botanical 
Science, contained in "T/ie Culture de- 
manded by Modern Lif&\ By E. L. 
Youmans. 12mo. N. Y. Cloth. $2.00 



H. Barnard. English Pedagogy — Old, 
and New: or, iVeatises and Thoughts 
on Education, the School, and the 
Teacher. First Series: Aschatn to 
Wotton. — Second Series: Arnold to 
Wolsey. 8vo. Hartford. Cloth. Each $3.60 

Amei^ican Pedagogy: Coy^tributions 

to the Principles and Methods of Edu- 
cation. 8vo. Hartford. Cloth. $3.50 

German Pedagogy : Views of 

German Educators and Teachei^s 
on the Principles of Education, and 
Methods of Instruction for Schools of 
different Grades. 8vo. Hartford. Clotii. 
$3.50 

303 



THE DICTIONARY OF EDUCATION AND INSTRUCTION 



H. Barnard. Aphorisms and Sugges- 
tions on Education and Methods of In- 
struction — Ancient and Modern. 8vo. 
Hartford. Cloth. $3.00 
These books, and others that will be named, 

are republished from Barfiard's Amerj'catt 

Journal of Education, a periodical that can 

not be too highly commended. 

E. Barth. JJeher den Umgang 
zur Schulpddagogik: 8vo. 
salza. $0.55 



Johann Amos Comenius. Grosse Vnter- 
richtslehre. Ans dem Lateinischen ilber- 
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von Ju. Beegek und Fri. Zoubek. 8vo. 
Leipzig. $1.30 

''As a school reformer he was the forerunner 
of Rousseau, Basedow, and Pestalozzi, sug- 
gested a mode of instruction which renders 
13eitrag\\envning attractive to children by pictures and 
Lailg«?U illustrations, and wrote the first pictorial 
liool-book". TVif^c Avirr. Cydopcedia . 



G. Baur. Grundziige der Erzielmngs- 
Lehre. 8vo. Giessen. $2.20 

Beesau's Spirit of ^Education. 12mo. 
Syracuse. Cloth. $1.25 

F. E. Beneke. Erziehungs- und Tlnter- 
richtslehre. Xeu bearheitet und mit Zu- 
sdtzen versehen v. J. G. Dressler. 8vo. 
2 vols. Berlin. $4.40 

C. W. Bennett. Education Abroad. 12mo. 
Syracuse. $0.25 

C Beyer. Erziehung zur Vernunft. Phi- 
losophisch - piidagogische Grundlinien 
fiir Erziehung und Unterricht. 8vo. 
Wien. $1.10 

J. S. Blackie. On Education. 8vo. Lon- 
don. $0.40 

Ernst Bohme. Des SoJines Erziehung. 
Piidagogische Briefe an eine Mutter. 
12mo. Dresden. $0.85 

K. Bormann. Ueber Erziehung tmd Un- 
terricht. Svo. Leipzig. $1.10 

Pddagogik fiir VolksschuUehrer, auf 

Grund aer aligemeinen Be.'ttimmuyigoi 
vom 15. October 1872, betrejf'end das 
Volksschid-, Prdparanden- iind Semi- 
7iarwesen, bearbeitet. 8vo. Berlin. $1.50 

W. Braubach. Fundamentallehre der 
Pddagogik oder Begriindung derselben 
zn einer strengen 'Wissenschaft. 8vo. 
Giessen. $0.60 

Buell's Elements of Education. 12mo, 
Syracuse. $0.15 

E. k. Clarke. The Building of a Brain. 
16mo. Boston. Cloth. $1.25 

Sex in Education. A fair Chance 

for Girls. 16mo. Boston. Cloth. $1.25 

G. Combe. On Education. 12mo. N. Y. 
Cloth. $5.00 

Johann Amos Comenius. Pddagogische 
Schriften. Uehersetzt und mit Anmer- 
kungen und des Comenius Biographic 
versehen von Th. Lion. 16mo. Langen- 
salza. $1.10 

Ausgen\\hlte Schriften. Mutter- 

schide, Pansophie, Pangnosie, etc. 
TJebersetzt und mit Eriduterungen ver- 
sehen von Jv. Beeger und .T. Leut- 
becher. Svo. Leipzig. $1.10 

304 



W. J. G. Curtmann. Lehrbuch der Er- 
ziehung und des U)iterrichts. 8vo. 
2 vols. Leipzig. $2.80 

B. G. Denzel. Einleitung in die Erzie- 
hungs- %ind Vnterrichtslehre fur Volks- 
schuUehrer. 8vo. 3 vols. With 5 plates. 
Stuttgart. $4.00 

Frdr. Dittos. Grundriss der Erziehungs- 
und Lrnterricldslehre. 8vo. Leipzig. 
$1.10 

Methodik der Volk.'fschide. Attf ge- 

schichtlicher Gi'undlage. 8vo. Leipzig. 
$1.35 

Schule do' Pddagogik. Gesammt- 

Ausgabe der Psychologic und Logik, 
Erziehungs- und Vnterrichtslehre, Me- 
thodik der Yolksschule, Geschichte dei- 
Erziehung und des Unterrichts. 8vo. 
Leipzig. $3.70 

J. Donaldson. Lectures on Education in 
Prussia and Eiigland. 8vo. Edin- 
burgh. Cloth. $1.40 

Mrs. E. B. Duffey. No Sex in Education: 
or an equal chance for both boys and 
girls. l(3mo. Philadelphia. Cloth. $1.00 

F. A. Ph. Dupanloup. De VEducation. 

Svo. 3 vols. Paris. $3.50 
Die Erziehung. 

sischen iXhersetzt. Svo. 
R. L. and M. Edgeworth. Treatise on 

Practical Education. 12mo. N. Y. 

Cloth. $1.50 

Edward Everett. Importance of Prac- 
tical Education and Usefrd Knowledge: 
being a Selection from his Orations and 
othe'rBiscourses.'Umo. N.Y. Cloth.$1.50 

F. W. Farrar. Essays on a Liberal 
Education. Svo. London. Cloth. $3.00 

J. Foster. Essays on the Evils of popular 
Ignorance. 12mo. N. Y. Cloth. $1.25 

0. S. Fowler. Education and Self-Im- 
provement. Illustr. 12mo. N. Y. Cloth. 
$3.50 

A. H. Francke. Schriftoi ilber Erzie- 
hung und Unterricht. Bearbeitet und 
mit Eriduterungen versehen von Karl 
RiCHTER. 8vo. 2 vols. Langensalza. 

$2.20 



Aus dem Franzo- 
3 vols. Mainz. $4.25 



THE DICTIONARY OF EDUCATION AND INSTRUCTION 



Th. Fritz. Esquisse cfun systeme complet 
d^ Instruction et dC Education et de lew 
Mstoire. 8vo. 3 vols. Strasbourg. $4.50 

H. Grafe. Allgenieine Pddagogik. In 
drei Bucheni. 8vo. 2 vols. Leipzi 
$4.40 

Deutsche Volksschnle, oder die Bur- 
ner- u. Landschide nach der Qesammt- 
neit Hirer Verliiiltnisse. Nehst einer 
Geschichte der Volksschule. Ein Hand- 
huch fur Lehrer und Schulaufseher . 
Nea bearheitet von J. Cub. Gottlob 
Schumann. 8vo. 3 vols. Jena. $5.3 

Frdr. Froebel. Gesammelte pddagogische 
Schriften. Hrsg. v. Wich. Lange. 8vo. 
2 vols, in 3 divisions. Berlin. $8.80 
Separately: 
I. 1. Aus FroebeVs Leben und em- 
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I. 2. Ideen FroebeVs iiber die Men- 
schenerziehung und Aufsdtze verschie 
denen Inhalts. With 3 plates. $2.95 

II. Die Pddagogik des Kindergar- 
tens. Gedanken F. FroebeVs iiber das 
Spiel und die Spielgegenstdnde des Kin- 
des. With 4 pages of music and 16 
plates. $3.30 

John Gill. Systems of Education: A 
History and Criticism of the Frinci- 
2)les, Methods, Organization and Moral 
Discipline Advocated by Eminent Edu 
cationisls. 8vo. London. Cloth. $1.00 

J. B. Graser. Divinitdt oder das Frin- 
cip der einzig loahren Menschenerzie- 
hung zurfesten Begriindung der Erzie- 
hungs- tmd TInterrichtswissenschoft. 
8vo. 2 vols. Bayreuth. $3.60 

A. W. Grube. Fddagogische Stndien 
und KrUikenfiXr Lehrer und Erzieher. 
Verniischte Aufsdtze aus den Jahren 
1845—1860. Svo. Leipzig. $1.65 

Neue Folge. Studien und Kri- 

tiken fiXr Pddagogen und Theologen. 
Svo. Leipzig. $0.75 

Yon der sittlichen Bildung der Ju- 

gend im ersten .lahrzehend des Lebens. 
Fddagogische Skizzen fiXr Eltern, Leh- 
rer, etc. Svo. Leipzig. $0.75 

Blicke in's Triebleben der Seele. 

Fsychologische Stndien fur angehende 
Fddagogen und Fsychologen, ivie audi 

fur gebildete Vdter und Freunde der 
Seelenkunde iXberhaupt. Svo. Leipzig. 
$1.10 

W. N. Hailmann. Lectures on Educa- 
tion. 12mo. Milwaukee. $0.25 

Erziehungs-Grundsdize fur ScJmle 

und Haus, 12mo. Milwaukee. $0.25 



Ph. Gilb. Hamerton. The Intellectual 
Life. Svo. Boston. Cloth. $2,00 

Part in. (Of Education) is especially 
valuable. 

Highei- Education. 12mo. N. Y. 

Cloth. $1.00 

Elizabeth Hamilton. Lettei-s on the Ele- 
mentary Principles of Education. 
32mo. 2 vols. London, Cloth, .i;l,60 

Sir William Hamilton. Discussions on 
PJdlosophy and Literature, Educattou 
and University Beform. 8vo. N, Y. 
Cloth. $3.00 

Contains the famous essay on the value of 
mathematical studies. 



Scientific Basis of Edu- 
N. Y. Cloth, $2,50 



John Hecker. 

cation. Svo, 

J. F. Herbart. Fddagogische Schriften 
in chronologischer Beihenfolge. Hisg. 
V. 0. WiLLMANN, 8vo. 2 vols, Leip- 
zig. $5,50 

Herm, HofPmeister. Comenius und Pes- 
talozzi als Begr ilnce)' der Volksschule. 
Svo. Berlin, $0,55 

Examen-Katechismus. III. Pdda- 
gogik. Ein liepetitionsbuch jUr Abitu- 
rieuten, Schulamts-Candidoten und As- 
jpirauten der MittelschuUehrer- und 
Bectoratsprufung. Svo. Berlin, $0,95 

F. D, Huntington, Unconscious Tuition. 
Vlmo. Syracuse, $0.15 

This essay is an educational classic. 

Thos, H, Hnxley. Lay Sermons, Ad- 
dresses and, Bevieus. 12mo. N. Y. 
Cloth, $1,75 

Imm, Kant, JJeber Pddagogik. Mii Ein- 
leitung und Anmerktmgen von Otto 
"WiLLMANX. Svo, Leipzig, $0.40 

Jos, Kehrein. Handfmch der Erziehung 
und des Unterrichtes zundchst fiir Se- 
minarzoglinge und Elementarlehrei-. 
Nach dem Tode des Vofassers bearbei- 
beitet V. A. Keller. Svo. Paderboru. 
$1,00 

L. Kellner. Kurze Geschichte der Erzie- 
hung und des Unterrichtes mit vonral- 
tender Biicksicht auf das Yolksschul- 
tcesen. Svo. Essen. $0.75 

Zur Fudagogik der Schide und des 

Hauses. Apliorismen, Schulanfsehei-n, 
Lehrern und Etern geicidmet. Svo. 
Essen. $0.70 

Volksschnlkunde. Ein Hand- und 

HiUfsbuch fiir katholische Seminare, 
Lehrer und Schidaufseher. Svo. Essen. 
$1,10 

Die Pddagogik der Volksschule und 

des Hauses in Aphorismen. Svo. Essen. 
$0.55 

305 



THE DICTIONARY OF EDUCATION AND INSTRUCTION 



1. Kellner. Pddagogische Mittheilungen 
aus den Gebieten der Schule und des Le- 
bens. Mit besonderer Bucksicht auf die 
Forthildung der Volksschullehrer in den 
Conferenzen. 8vo. 2 parts. Essen. $1.50 

Frdr. Korner. JlntetTichts- und Erzie- 
hungskunst nach physiologisch-psycho 
logischen Gesetzen und den Forderun- 
gen des Cultwiebens, Fur Eltern, Leh- 
rer und Freunde einer zeitgemdssen 
Volksbildang. 8vo. Pressburg. $2.75 

Ernst Laas. JJie Pddagogik des Johamies 
Sturm. Hlstorisch und kritisch beleach 
let. 8vo. Berlin. $0.75 

Wich. Lange. Knospen, Bluthea imd 
Fmchte erzieJilichenStrebens. Pddagog 
ischeAnregu7igen. 8vo. Hamburg. $l.(i5 

Emile de Laveleye. V Instruction da 
Peuple. 8vo. Paris. $2.50 

G. E. Leasing. The Education of the Hu- 
man Race. Translated by P. M. Rob 
EKTSON. 8vo. London. Cloth. $1.25 

J. Leutbecher. Joh. Amos Comeniu 
Lehrku)ist. 8vo. Leipzig. $0.4) 

John Locke. Some Thoughts concerning 
Education. With Introduction and 
Notes by Rev. R. H. Quick. 12uio 
Cambridge. $1.40 

"Almost all the influence which England 
has had on the theory of Education must be 
attributed to Locke alone." Quick. 

L. C. Loomis. Mental and Social Culture 

12mo. N. y. Cloth. $0.75 
Horace Mann. Thoughts selected from 

the ipritings of Horace Mann. i2mo. 

Boston. Cloth. $1.25 
Lectures and Annual Peports o)i 

Education. 8vo. Boston, (^loth. $3.00 

As an exposition of a body of sound public 
school doctrine, these lectures are unequaled 
in tlie whole range of our educational literature. 

E. D. Mansfield. American Education. 
12mo. N. Y. Cloth. $1.50 

T. Markby. Practical Essays on Edu- 
cation. 8vo. London. Cloth. $2.00 

Ira Mayhew. ITniversal Education: Ps 
Means and Ends. 12mo. N. Y. Cloth. 
$1.75 

J.Milton. Treatise of Education. 24mo. 
N. Y. $0.25 

M. de Montaigne. Works. Comprising 
his Essays, Journey i)ito Italy, and 
Letters; with Notes from all the Com-: 
mentators, Biographical and. Bibliogra- 
phical Notices, etc., hi) W. Hazlitt. 
8vo. Philadelphia. Clotli. $3.50 
(Paternal Aflfection; against Idleness; of 

Lyars; of Pedantry; Custom and Law; of the 

Education of Children; of Anger.) 

"An admirable resume of all that has been 

settled in regard to educational aims up to the 

present time." Cyclopaedia of Education. 

306 



A.. Oppler. Three Lectures on Education, 
delive^^ed before the College of Precep- 
tor's. Revised and enlarged. 8vo. Lon- 
don. Cloth. $1.80 

Joseph Payne. The Science and Art of 
Education. Vlmo. N. Y. Paper. $0.15; 
Cloth. $0.40 

Lectures on the Science and Art of 

Education, icith other Ljectures and 
Essays. Edited by Joseph F. Payne. 
With an Introduction by Rev. R. H. 
Quick. 8vo. Portrait. London. Cloth. 
$3.60 

Joseph Payne was one of the first educa- 
tors of this century; and this volume is one of 
the most valuable contributions ever made to 
our educational literature. 
J. H. Pestalozzi's SdmrntlicheWerke. Ge- 

sichtet, vervoUstdndigt und mit erldu- 

ternden Einleitungen versehen v. L. W. 

Seyffarth. 8vo. 18 vols. Brandenburg. 

$13.45 

Ausgewdhlte Werke. Mit Pestaloz- 
zi's Biographic hrsg. v. Frdr. Mann. 
8vo. 4 vols. Langensalza. $2.75 

Lienhard und Gertrud. Ein Buck 

fur das Volk. 16mo. Leipzig. $0.40; 

Cloth. $0.60 
Anszug in einem Bande. Von 

L. W. Seyffarth. 8vo. Brandenburg. 

$0.90 

Wie Gertrud Hire Kinder lehrt. Mit 

einer Einleitung: JohannHeinrich Pes- 
talozzis IjCben, Werke und Grund- 
sdtze. Einleitung und Conimentar v. 
K. Riedel. 8vo, Leipzig. $0.75 

Mr?. A. H. L. Phelps. The Educator; or. 
Hours until my Pupils. I'lmo. N. Y. 
Cloth. $1.50 

W. F. Phelps. What is Education? 
Umo. N. Y. Paper. $0.10 

Richard Quain. On Some Defects in Gen- 
eral Education. 8vo. N.Y. Cloth. $1.25 

A. W. Ranb. Plain Educational Talk 
with Teachers and Parents. 12mo. 
Philadelphia. Cloth. $1.50 

HuGfo Reid. Elementary Treatise on 
Principles of Education. 12nio. Lon- 
don. $2.00 

Ernest Renan. La Part de la Famille 
et de I'Etat dans V Education. 12mo. 
Paris. $0.20 

lean Paul F. Richter. Levana, or, The 
Doctrine of Education. 12mo. Boston. 
Cloth. $2.00 

Padasrogische Bibliothek. Sammlung der 
unchtigsien pddagogischen Scliriften, dl- 
terer und neuerer Zeit. Hrsg. v. Karl 
RiCHTRR. Svo. Part^ 1—93. Leipzig. 
Each .10.20 
(I. Pestalozzi; II. Salzmann; III. Comenius; 

IV. Montaigne, Rabelais; V. VI. Francke; 



THE DICTIONAKY OF EDUCATION AND INSTRTTCTION 



VII. Pestalozzi; VIII. Rousseau; IX. Locke; 
X. Kant; XL Comenius; XII. Campe; XIII. 
XIV. Herbart; XV. Salzmann; XVI. Vives.) 

G. A. Riecke. Erziehungslehre. 8vo. 

Stuttgart. $L55 
Carl Rosenkranz. Hie Science of Edu- 
cation; or. Pedagogics as a System. 
Translated from the German by Anna 
C. Bkackktt. 8vo. St. Louis. Paper. 
$L00; Cloth. $L50 
The text-book in the department of Peda- 
gogics ill the University of Missouri. 

Die Pddagogik als System. Eiii 

Grundriss. 8vo. Konigsberg. $1 3} 

J. J. Rousseau. Emil, oder Ueber die Er- 
ziehang. Deutsch von H. Denhaiu)t. 
IGiuo. 2 vols. Leipzig. Cloth. $L10 

Emile, ou de V Education. l6mo. 

Paris. $1.05 

"Perhaps the most influential book ever 
written on ti.e subject of education." Quick. 

Emilius and Sophia; or, A A^t 

Systein of Education. 12ino. 4 vols. 
Loudon. About $4.50 

"C'est de I'Angleterre (Locke) qu'e.st venu 
le premier gernie de I'Emile; c'est en Alie- 
magne que I'Emile a porte tous ses fruits bons 
ou mauvais". Compayrc 

C. G. Salzmann. Noch etwas ilber die 
ErzieJiung. $0.40. — Ameisenbuchlein . 
$0.40. — Ueber die u-irk.'iamsten MUtel, 
Kindern lieJigion beizubringen. $0..),). 
Bvo. 3 parts. Leipzig. $1.35 

Frdr. Schleiermacher. Erziehungslehre. 

Hrsg. V. C. Platz. 8vo. Leipzig. Cloth. 

$1.85 ■ j 

K. A. Schmid. Aus Schule und Zeif.l 

Eeden und Aufsdtze. 8vo. Gotha. $1.5(1 

Pddagogisches Handbuch fiir dasi 

JIaus, die Volks-, Biirger-, Mitt el- 
und Forthildungssch.yde. Aiif Grund- 
lage der Encyklopddie des gesammten 
Erziehungs- und Vnterrichisuiesens i)i 
alphabetischer Ordnung bearbeitet. 8vo. 
2 vols. Gotha. $10.65 

C. Chr. G. Schmidt. Ueber Erziehung. 
Kach den Aus.'^prHchen der heiligen 
Schrift, den Werken Jean Paul's, 
ScMeiei-macher's u. A., sou-ie nach ei- 
gener Erfahrung. 8vo. Leipzig. $0.55 

K. Schmidt. Bncli der Erziehung. Pie 
Gesetze dier Erziehung und des Unter- 
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des menschlichen Leibes und Geisfes.l 
Briefe an Eitern, Lehrer und Erzieher. 
With woodcuts. 8vo. Cothen. $2.20 

C. F. Schnell. Znr Pddagogik der That. 
Praktische Pnnkte der Erziehung und 
BUdung , nebst Anhang ^ Schulgesetze 
betreffend. 8vo. Berlin. $1.10 



J. Chr. Gloh. Schumann. Leiifaden der 
Pddagogik fur den Unten-icht in Leh- 
rerbUdungsanstalten. I. Die systemati- 
scJie Pddagogik und die Schidkunde. 
8vo. Hannover. $0.90 

II. Geschichte der Pddaqoqik. 

$0.90 ^ ^ 

Pddagogische Chrestomathie. Eine 

Auswahl aus den pddagogischen Mei- 
stei-icerken alter Zeiten fiir die pddago- 
gische Privatlectiire mit Einleitungen 
und Anmerkunqen versehen. I. IHe 
pddagogischen Meislencerke des orien- 
talischen Alterthums und der alien Grie- 
chen. Svo. Hannover. $1.10 

L. Schwenke. Erziehung und Unterricht: 
Pddagogische AusspriicJie fur Eitern, 
Lehrer und Erziehei\ Svo. Leipzig. 
$0.95 

E. Schwab. School- Garden: a practical 
contribution to the Sidjject of Education. 
12mo. N. Y. $0.50 

Jules Simon. EEcoie. XonveUe edition 
mise au coward des dernieres sta- 
tistiques et de Vetat actuel de la legis- 
lation. 18nio. Paris. $1.25 

La Rpforme de Venseignement se- 

condaire. ISmo. Paris. $1.25 

Herbert Spencer. Education : IrdeV 
lectual, Moral and Physical. 12mo- 
N. Y. Cloth. $1.25 

A work of great ability, written from the 
laissez-faire point of view. It magnifies the 
I part played by Nature in education, but ob- 
jserves the influence of human art. It is sug- 
igestive and worthy of study; but unless stu- 
died critically, it is misleading. 

J. G. Spurzheim. Education: its Ele- 
ment; Principles founded on Nature of 
Man. 12mo. N. Y. Cloth. $1.50 

Ludwig Striimpell. Psychologische Pd- 
dagogik. Svo. Leipzig. $2.00 

Thos. Tate. The Philosophy of Educa- 
tion. 12mo. London. Cloth. $2.60 

G. Thaulow. Hegel's Ansichten ilber Er- 
ziehung und Unterricht. 8vo. 3 vols. 
Kiel. $5.20 

D'Arcy W. Thompson. Day Dreams of 
a Schoolmaster. 12mo. London. Cloth. 
$2..50 

Wayside Thoughts on Education. 

12mo. Edinburgh. Cloth. $2.40 

E. Thomson. Educational Essays. Edited 
by Rev. D. W. Clark. 12mo. Cincin- 
nati. Cloth. $1.50 

E. Thring. Education and School. Svo. 
London. Cloth. $1.75 

Isaac Todhunter. The Conflict of Stu- 
dies, and other Subjects connected with 
Education. 8vo. Loudon. Cloth. $2.5o 

307 



THE DICTIONAEY OF EDUCATION AND INSTRUCTION 



J. J. Wagner. Philosophie der Erzie- 
hungskunst. 8vo. Leipzig. $1.05 

Th.Waitz. AllgemeinePadagogik und klei- 
nere pddagogische Schriften. Hrsg. v. 
O.WiLLMANN. 8vo. Brauiiscliweig. $3.70 

F.G.Welch. Moral, Intellectual andPhys- 
ical Culture. 12iuo. N. Y. Cloth. $1.75 

Wm. Whewell. Of a Liberal Education 
in General, and with Particular Re- 
ference to the Leading Studies of the 
University of Cambridge. 8vo. Lon- 
don. Boards. $2.00 

J. F. T. Wohlfarth. Pddagogisches 
Schatzkiistlein. 8vo. Leipzig. $1.10 

T. Ziller. Vorlesungen Uber cdlgemeine 
Pddagogik. 8vo. Leipzig. $2.05 

Grundlegung zur Lehre voni erzie- 

henden Unterricld. Nach ihrer wis- 
senschaftlichen und praktisch-reforma- 
torischen Seile entwickelt. Mil Sach- 
register. 8vo. Leipzig. $3.85 

Die Pegierung der Kinder. Fib 

gebildefe Eliern, Lehrer und Studirende 
bearbeitet. 8vo. Leipzig. $0.90 



2. Science and Art of Teaching-. 
(Pedagogy and Didactics.) 

J. Alden. Outlines on Teachinq. 12mo. 

N. Y. $0.40 
Roger Ascham. Tlie Scholemaster. With 
copious notes and a glossary by J, E. 
B. Mayor. 12mo. London. $2.40 
"I had rather have thrown ten thousand 
pounds into the sea than have lost my 
Ascham." Queen Elizabeth. 

"It contains, perhaps, the best advice that 
was ever given for the study of language." 

Dr. Johnson. 
"Roger Ascham * * * one of those men 
of genius born to create a new era in the his- 
tory of their nation * * * the venerable parent 
of our native literature." D'Lsraeli 

Aschams complete Works. 12mo. 
London. 4 vols. $8.00 
J. Baldwin. Art of School Management 

12mo. N. Y. Cloth. $1.50 
Henry Barnard. Amo'ican Pedagogy: 
Education, The School and the Teacher, 
in American Literature. 8vo. Hart- 
ford. Cloth. $3.50 
Elementary and Secondary Instruc- 
tion in the German States. (National 
Education. Part I.) 8vo. Hartford. 
Cloth. $5.50 
Elementary and Secondary Instruc- 
tion in Suntzerland (each of the 23 Can- 
tons), France. Belgium, Holland, Ben- 
mark, Norway and Sweden, Russia, 
Turkey, Greece, Italy, Portugal, and 
Spain. (National Education. Part. IL) 
8vo. Hartford. Cloth. $5.50 
308 



Henry Barnard. English Pedagogy: 
Education, The School and The Teach- 
er in English Liter atu?'e. First Series. 
8vo. Hartford. Cloth. $3.50 — Second 
Series. 8vo. Hartford. Cloth. $3.50 

French Teachers, Schools and Ped- 

(fgogy — Old and New. 8vo. Hart- 
ford. Cloth. $3.50 

German Pedagogy: Education, The 

School and The Teacher in German 
Literature. 8vo. Hartford. Cloth. $3.50 

W. Bornemann. Lehrpldne fiir den Un- 
terricht in den Realien nebst rnethodi- 
schen Winkeu und Regeln fur sdmmt- 
liche Schulsysteme. 8vo. "Kreuznach. 
$0.25 

3. S. Boyce. Hints toward a National 
Culture for Young Americans. 12ino. 
■ N. Y. Paper. $0.25; Cloth. $0.50 

E. Brooks. Normal Methods of Teaching. 
12mo. Philadelphia. Cloth. $1.75 

H. Calderwood. On Teaching: Its Ends 
and Means. 16mo. N. Y. $1,00 

Jas. Currie. The Principles and Prac- 
tice of Common School Education. 
l2nio. Edinburgh. Cloth. $2.40 

G. F. Dinter. Bie corzuglichMen Regeln 
der Pddagogik, Meihddik und' Schul- 
meisterklugJieit. 8vo. Neustadt. $0.25 

H. Dnnn. Principles of Teaching. 12mo. 
London. Cloth. $1.40 

E. Eggleston. Counsel for Teachers. 
12mo. Chicago. Paper.' $0.30 

Frederick C. Emberson. Tlie Art of 
Teaching. A Manual for the use of 
Teachers and School Commissioners. 
8vo. lUustr. Montreal. Cloth. $0.50 

I. Q. Fitch. Lectures on Teaching de- 
livered in the University of Cambridge 
during the Lent Term, 1880. 8vo. 
Cambridge. Cloth. $1.75 
Text-Book in the Art of Teaching in the 

University of Michigan. 

H. Graefo. Allgemeine Pddagogik. 8vo. 
2 vols. Leipzig. $3.60 

J. Fr. Herbart's pddagogische Schriften. 
In chronologischer Reihenfolge heraus- 
gegeben mii Einleitung, Anmerkungen 
und comparativem Register versehen v. 
Otto Wjllmann. 8vo. 2 vols. Leip- 
zig. $5.50 

A. Holbrook. Nor7nal Methods of Teach- 
ing. 12mo. N. Y. Cloth. $1.50 

J. H. Hoose. On the Province of Meth- 
ods in Teaching. 12mo. Syracuse. 
Cloth. $1.00 

Jnlia Ward Howe. Sex and Education. 
A Reply to Dr. Clarke's "Sex in Edu- 
cation.'''' 16mo. Boston. Cloth. $1.25 

J. Hughes. Mistakes in Teaching, Syr- 
acuse. $0.50 






I 



THE BTCTIONAKY OF EDUCATION AND INSTRUCTION 



J. Jacotot. Enseignement Universel. I. 
1. Matheriiatiques. 2. Epitome de Ma- 
thematiques a Vusage des eleves de V en- 
seignement universel. II. Langue Ma- 
ternelle. 8vo. Pans. 
Joseph Payne was a disciple of Jacotot. 

His system will repay a careful study. 

James Johonnot. Principles and Prac- 
tice of Teaching. 12mo. N. Y. Cloth. 
$1.50 

A. M. Kellogg. The New Education; 

School Management. 16mo. N. Y. $0.75 
H. Kern. Grundriss der Pddagogik 

8vo. Berlin. $1.85 

H. Kiddle, Tho. Harrison, and Norman 
A. Calkins. How to Teach. A Manual 
of Methods for a Graded Course of In 
struction: embracing the Subjects usu- 
ally pursued in Primary, Intermediate, 
Grammar and High Schools, also Sug- 
gestio)is relative to Discipline and ScJioot 
Management. For the use of Teachers. 
12nio. Cincinnati. Cloth. $1.25 

G. V. Le Vaux. Science and Art of Teach 
ing. 12mo. Toronto. Cloth. $1.25 

A. Liese. Lehrpldne fiir die ein- und 
mehrklassige Volksschule. 8vo. Neu- 
wied. $0.45 

J. L. Ludwig- Grundsdtze und Lehren 
vorzUglicher Pddagogiker von Locke 
bis auf die gegenicdrtige Zeit. 8vo 
3 vols. Bayreuth. $4.95 

Arch. Maclaren. Traini^ig, in Theory 
and Practice. 12mo. lUustr. N. Y. 
Cloth. $2.25 

H. Maudsley. Sex in Mind and Edu- 
cation. 16mo. N. Y. Paper. $0.25 

Fr. Denison Maurice. Learning and 
Wo}-king. Six Lectures on the Foun- 
dation of Colleges for Working Men. 
8vo. London. Cloth. $2.00 

Hugh Miller. My Schools and School- 
masters; or, the Story of my Education. 
12mo. N. Y. Cloth. $1.50 

J. Ogden. Science of Education and Art 

of Teaching. 12mo. Cincinnati. Cloth. 

$1.50 
H. Orcutt. Teacher^ s Manual. 12mo. 

Boston. Cloth. $1.00 
D. P. Page. Theory and Practice of 

Teaching. 12mo. N. Y. Cloth. $1.50 
Joh. Heinr. Pestalozzi. Lienhard und 

Gertrud. Bearheitet und mit Anmer- 

kungen versehen von Karl Richter. 

8vo. Leipzig. $0.55 
■ Lienhard und Gertrud. Ein Buch 

fur das Volk. Heransgegeben von L. 

W. Seyffarth. 8vo. Brandenburg. 

$3.70 



Joh. Heinr. Pestalozzi. Wie Gertrud ihre 
Kinder lehrt. Erlautert und mit An- 
merkung en versehen von Alb. Richtek. 
8vo. Leipzig. $0.75 

W. F. Phelps. The Teach&^'s Handbook 

for the Insiitute and Class - Boom. 

12mo. N. Y. Cloth. $1.50 
Mrs. A. H. L. Phelps. The Discipline of 

Life, or Ida Norman. 12mo. N. Y. 

Cloth. $1.75 

The Educator; o)% Hours with my 

Pupils. 12mo. N. Y. Cloth. $1.50 

The Student; or, Fireside Friend. 

With an Appendix on Moral and Be- 
ligious Education. 12mo. N. Y. Cloth. 
$1.50 

A. Potter and G. B. Emerson. The School 
and the Schoolmaste7\- Manual for 
Teachers, Empjloyers, etc. 12mo. N. Y. 
Cloth. $1.50 

K. Richter. Die Beform der Lehrer- 
seminare nach denForderungenunserer 
Zeit und der heutigen Pddagogik. Ge- 
kronte Preisschrift. 8vo. Leipzig. 
$1.50 

H. Schiller. Ueber die pddagogische Vor- 
bildung zum hoheren Lehramt. 8vo. 
Giessen. $0.40 

E. Seguin. Beport on Education. 12mo. 

Milwaukee. Cloth. $1.50 
E. A. Sheldon. Lessons inObjects, graded 
sei'ies, designed for children between the 
ages of six and fourteen years; contain- 
ing also Information on Common Ob- 
jects. 12mo. N. Y. Cloth. $1.75 

A Manual of Elementary Instrnction, 

for the use of Public and Private 
\Schools and Normal Classes. Contain- 
ing a graduated course of Object Les- 
sons for training the senses and devel- 
oping the faculties of children. ]2mo. 
N. Y. Cloth. $1.75 

N. Sizer. How to Teach according to 
Temperament and Mental Development. 
12mo. N. Y. Cloth. $1.50 

Herbert Spencer. Education: Intellect- 
unl, Moral and Physical. 12mo. N. Y. 
Cloth. $1.25 

Alb. Stockl. Lehrbuch der Pddagogik. 
8vo. Mainz. $1.80 

[saac Stone. Complete Examiner; or. 
Candidate's Assistant. Prepared to aid. 
Teachers in securing Certificates from 
Boards of Examiners, and Pupils in, 
preparing themselves for Promotion, 
Teachers in selecting Bex:iew Questions 
in Normal Schools, Institutes, and in 
all Drill and Class Exercises. 12mo. 
N. Y. Cloth. $1.25 

309 



THE BICTIONAKY OF EDUCATION AND INSTEUCTION 



Dav. Stow. Draining System in Glasgow 
Model Schools. 8vo. London. Cloth 
$2.60 

H. Strelow. Ber VolksschuUehrer, icie 
er ist und wie er sein soil. 8vo. Lobau. 
$0.30 

L. Striimpell. Die Pddagogik der Fhilo- 
sophen Kant, Fichte., Herhart. 8vo. 
Braunschweig. $1.15 

John Swett. Methods of Teaching. A 
Hand- Book of Principles, Directions, 
and Working Models for Common school 
Teachers. Umo. N. Y. Cloth. $1.50 

J. R. Sypher. A7^t of Teaching School: 
Manual of Suggestions. 12mo. Phila. 
Cloth. $1.50 

J. P. Wickersham. Methods of In 
struction, or, that pxirt of the Philos- 
ophy of Education which treats of the 
Nature of the Several Branches of 
Knoidedge, and the Metliod of Teach- 
ing them,. Vlmo. Phila. Cloth. $1.75 



3. Special Didactics. 

E. A. Abbott. How to Write Clearly. 
16mo. Boston. Cloth. $0.60 

Howto Parse. 16mo. Boston. Clotli. 

$1.00 

A. M. Bacon. A Manual of Gesture. 
With lOOFigiires, embracing a complete 
System of Notation, with the Principles 
of Interpretation, and Selections fo7 
Practice. I'irao. Chicago. Cloth. $1.75 

"W. W. Davis. Suggestions of Teaching 

Frc(ctions. 16mo. Syracuse. Paper. 

$0.25 
A. Douai. A Peform of the Gomnion 

English Branches of Instruction. 12mo. 

N. 1'. Boards. $0.30 
J. G. Fitch. The Art of Questioning. 12rao. 

N. Y. Paper. .$0.15 

Wm. Ellis. Education as a means of 
preventing Hestitution: with E.templi- 
Jications from the Teaching of the Con- 
dition of well-being and the Principles 
and Applications of Economical Science. 
8vo. London. $1.60 

L. T. Fowler. Manual of Oral Instruc- 
tion for Graded Schools. 4to. San 
Francisco. $0.75 

Ed. Frankland. Horv to teach Chemistry. 
Hints to Science Teachers and Studenls. 
Being the Substance of Six Lectures 
delivered at the Poyal College of Chem- 
istry, June, 1872. Summarized and 
edited by Gkorgk Chaloner. 12mo. 
Phila. Cloth. $1.25 

310 



J. E. Frobisher. Voice and Action. A 
new and practical system on the culture 
of Voice and Action, and a complete 
analysis of the Human Passions, with 
an appendix of Headings a)td Recita- 
tions, designed for Public Speakers, 
Teachers, and Students. 12rao. N. Y. 
Cloth. $1.25 

A. A. Griffith. Lessons in Elocution and 
Brill Book for Practice of the Prin- 
ciples of y^ocal Physiology, and for ac- 
quiring the Art of Elocution and Ora- 
tory, comprising all the Elements of 
Vocal BeUvery and Gestures for 
Schools, Colleges, the Pu'pit, and Private 
Learuers. 12mo. Chicago. Clotli. $1.50 

Thomas Hill. The True Order of Studies. 
12mo. N. Y. Cloth. $1.25 

J. H. Hoose. Studies in Articulation. 
12mo. Syracuse. Paper. $0.30 

M. E. Lilienthal and Robt.AUyn. Things 
Taught: Systematic Instruction, in 
Composition and Object Lessons. 16rQ0. 
Cincinnati. Paper. $0.25 

Francis A. March. Method of Philologic- 
al Study of the English Language. 
12mo. N. Y. Paper. $0.60; Cloth $0.75 

E.A.Sheldon and E. H. Barlow. Teach- 
er's Manual of Instruction in Beading, 
designed to accompany SJiMdoi's Head- 
ers.' rimo. N. Y. Cloth. $1.00 

I. Stone. T/ie Teacher's Examine)'. 12mo. 
N. Y. Cloth. $1.25 

J. Swett. Questions for Written Exami- 
nations: Aid to Candidates for Teacher' s 
Certificates. 12mo. N. Y.' Cloth. $1.00 

4. Home Education and Self 
Education. 

Frdi. Ascher. Brief e an meinen Sohn. 

Anleitung zur Selbsterziehung. 12ino. 

Berlin. Cloth. $1.10 
Bie Erziehnng der Jugend. Ein 

Handbuch fUr E'tern und Erzieher. 

8vo. Berlin. $1.40 
W. H. Bacon. Parental Training. 16mo. 

Phila. $0.70 

Mrs. J. Bake well. Mothers' Practical 
Guide. ISmo. N. Y. $0.60 

J. R. Beard. Self -Culture. A Practical 
Answer to the Questions: What to 
learn ? How to learn ? When to learn ? 
The whole forming a complete Guide 
to Self- Instruction.' 3d edition. 12mo. 
Manchester. Cloth. $1.50 
Besser. Bas Werden und Wachsen 
unserer Kinder. Ein Buch Uber Kin- 
despflege. 12mo. Berlin. $0.95 






THE DICTIONARY OF EDUCATION AND INSTRUCTION 



John Stuart Blackie. On Self Culture, 
Intellectual, Physical, and Moral. A 
Vade Mecum for Young Men and Stu- 
dents. 16mo. N. Y. Cloth. $1.00 

A. V. Bohlen. JDas Buck der Mutter fur 
Haus und Erziekung. With illustr. 
8vo. Berlin. $1.50 

F. Bridges. Hints to Mothers on Home 
Education. A popular Epitome of such 
Points in Physiological Science as bear 
upon the Moral and Physical T)^aining 
of Youth. 8vo. J.ondon. Cloth. $1.5U 

J. F. Clarke. Self Culture. 12mo. Boston. 

Cloth. $1.50 
J. A. Comenius. Die Mutterschule. Aufs 

Neue hrsg. von H. Schkotek. 8vo. 

Weissenfels. $0.40 
W. J. G. Curtman. Lehrbuch dei' Erzie- 

hung und des Unterrichts. Ein Hand- 

buchfUr EUern, Lehrer und Geistliche. 

8vo. 2 vols. Leipzig. $2.80 
Thos. DeQuincey. Letters to a Young 

Man, and other Papers (lihetoric, Style, 

etc.). 16mo. Boston. Cloth. $1.25 
A. Dollen. Per erste Unterricht. Ein 

Rathgeber fur Eltern, die ihre Kindei 

selbst fUr die Schide vorbereilen woUen. 

8vo. Dorpat. $1.65 

G. Gary Eggleston. How to Educate 
Yoursef. A complete Cuide to Stu, 
dents showing Hoju to Study, What to 
Study, How and What to Bead. V2mo. 
N. Y. Cloth. $0.75 

J. Folsing. Erziehungsstqfe fiir Fam.i- 
lien und Kleinkinderschulen. 8vo. 
Darmstadt, $2.05 

Pie Menschenerziehung, oder die 

naturgemdsse Erziehung und Entwicke- 
lung der Kindheit in den ersten Lebens- 
jahren. Ein Buch filr das Familien- 
leben und Kleinkinderschidleben. 8vo. 
Leipzig. $1.10 

0. S. Fowler. Memory and. Tntellectn.al 
Improvement applied to Self- Education 
and .luvenile Instruction. 'l2mo. N. Y. 
Cloth. $1.25 

EdMcation and Self- Improvement 

Complete. Comprising Physiology 
Animal and Mental; Sef -Culture and 
Perfection of Character; including the 
Management of Youth; Memory and 
Intellectual Improvement. 12mo. Cloth. 
$3.50 

J. M. de Gerando. Self- Education. 12mo. 
Boston. Cloth, about $3.00 

J. C. A. Heinroth. On Education and 
Self- Formation, based xipon Physical, 
Intellectual, Moral, and Religious 
Principles. 12mo. London. Cloth 
$2.25 



H. Herzog u. K. Schiller. Pas Kind. 

Anleitungen zur rationellen physischen 
Erziehungsweise und Winke zur Ent- 
faltung des Seelenlebens der Kinde): 
FUr Matter und ihre erziehenden Stell- 
vertrelerinnen. 8vo. Wien. $1.50 

H. Klencke. Pie Mutter als Erziehe)'in 
iJcrei' TocMer und Sohne zur jjhysischen 
und sittlichen Cesundheit vom ersten 
Kindesalter bis zur Peife. Ein prak- 
tisches Bach fur deatsche Frauen. 8vo. 
Leipzig. Cloth. $2.65 

M. S. Kiibler (Fran Scherr). Pie Schule 
der Mutter. Ein Hand- und Hiifsbuch 
fiir Mutter und Erzieherinnen. With 
illustr. 8vo. Leipzig. $4.40 

H. Martineau. Household Education. 
18nio. Boston. Cloth. $1.25 

J. McCrie. Autopcedia; Personal Edu- 
cation for Young Men. 8vo. London. 
Cloth. $4.90 

Wm. Mathews. Getting on in the World; 
or, Hints on Success in Life. First and 
Second Series. 8vo. London. Cloth. 
$1.40 

The same. 12mo. Chicago. Cloth. 

$2.00 

H. Meier. Pas Kind in seinen ersten 
Lebensjahren. Skizzen uber Leibes- 
und Geistes- Erziehung. Peutschen Mat- 
tern gewidmet. 8vo. Leipzig. $0.75 

S. Neil. Culture and Self -Culture. 8vo. 
London. Paper. $0.40 

K. Oppel. Pas Buch der Eltern. Prak- 
tische Anleitung znr hduslich.en Erzie- 
hung der Kinder beiderlei Geschlechts 
vom friihesten Alter bis zur Selbststdn- 
digkelt. 8vo. Frankfurt a.M. $2.35 

Hiram Orcutt. Parenfs Manual. Home 
and School Trainvig. 12nio. Boston. 
Cloth. $1.25 

Miss J. Pardee. Parental Instruction 
for Young Persons. 12mo. N. Y. 
Cloth. $0.75 

B. Sigismund. Kind und Welt. Vcitern, 
MUttern u. Kinderfrexmd,en gewidmet. 
I. Pie 5 ei'sten Perioden des Kindes- 
Alters. Svo. Braunschweig. $1.10 

Samuel Smiles. Self-Help Libraru. Con- 
sisting of Life of George Stephenson, 
Industrial Biography, Brief Biogra- 
phies and Self-Help. 4 vols. l6mo. 
Pliiladelphia. Cloth. ^ vol. $1.25; 
^ set in box $5.00 

S. Stern. Pie lidusliche Erziehung. 8vo. 
Leipzig. $1.50 

I. Taylor. Home Education. Svo. Lon- 
don, Cloth. $2.00 

Th. D. Woolsey. Helpful Thouglds for 
Young Men. 12mo. Boston. Cloth. $1.25 

311 



THE DICTIONARY OF EDUCATION AND INSTBUCTION 



i 



Piimaiy, 



IV. SPECIAL EDUCATION. 

Secondary, and Higher Instruction. The Kinder- 
garten. Commercial, MiHtary, Naval, Industrial, and Technical 
Education and Schools; Art Education and Schools. Normal 
Instruction and Schools ; and Teachers' Institutes. Schools for 
the Blind, Deaf and Dumb, and Imbecile, and Reform 
Schools. Education of Women or Female Education. Physical 
Education. Moral and Religious Education; Sunday Schools. 



1. Primary, Secondary, and 
Higher Instruction. 

F. Adams. The Ft^ee School System of 
the United States. 8vo. London. $3.60 

Matthew Arnold. Popular Education 
in France, with Notices of Holland. 
8vo. London. Cloth. $4. 20 

A French Eton; or, Middle- Class 

Education and the State. 8vo. London. 
Cloth. $L00 

Higher Schools and TJniversities in 

Germany. With a new Preface com- 
paring the Policy of the Prussian 

Government toumrds Roman Catholic 
Education and Roman Catholicism 
with that of the English Govermnent in 
Ireland. 8vo. London. Cloth. $2.50 

W. H. Bainbri^ge. Early Education. 
Being the Substance of four Lectures 
delivered in the Public Hall of the Col- 
legiate Institution. 12nio. Liverpool. 
Cloth. $L00 

J. L. Bashford. Elementary Education 
in Saxony. 8vo. London. .f0.40 

Anna Laetitia Barbauld. Early Lessons 
for Children. 12mo. London. $0.60 

Henry Barnard. Primary Schools and 
Elementary Instruction: Object Teach 
ing and Oral Lessons on Social Science 
and Common Things, etc. {Papers foi 
the Teacher. Second Series.) 8vo, 
Hartford. Cloth. $3.50 

Superior Instruction in different 

Countries. Revised Edition, 1878. 

Part L Uidoersities in Germany, 
Italy, France, Belgium, Hohand, Ben- 
mark, Sweden, Rti.ssia, Greece, Spain, 
Portugal. 8vo. Hartford. Cloth. $3.50 

Part II. Universities in Great Britain 
8vo. Hartford. Cloth. $3.50 
A Bohlmann. Vollstdndiger Lehrplan 
nebst Pensenvertheilung nnd Lektions 
pldnen fUr eine ungetheilte einktassige 
Volksschule. 8vo. Leipzig. $0.40 

312 



Chas. A. Bristed. Five Years in an 
English University. l2mo. N. Y. Cloth. 
$2.25 

J. Breiden. Theoretisch-praktische An- 
leitungfur den AnschauungsunteiTicht. 
8vo. Essen. $0.30 

W. Burton. The Culture of the Observing 
Faculties. 16mo. N. Y. Cloth. $0.75 

Norman A. Calkins. Primary Object 
Lessons, for Ti^aining the Senses and 
Developing the Faculties of Children. 
A Manual of Elementary Instruction 
for Parents and Teachers. Re- written 
andenlarged. 12mo. N. Y. Cloth. $1.25 

Jas. Currie. Principles and Practice of 
Early and Infant School Education, 
12mo. Edinburgh. Cloth $2.00 

J. H. Deinbardt. Per Gymnasial-Un- 
terricht nach den wissenschaftlichen 
Anforderungen derjetzigen Zeit. 8vo. 
Hamburg. $1.65 

Ed. Davies. Intermediate and University 
Education in Wales. 8vo. London. 
$0.40 

Denzel's Entwurf des Anschauungsunter- 
richts in katechetischer Gedankenfolge. 
Practisch ausgefiihrt von C. Wrage. 
8vo. Altona. I. Cursus $0.55; II. Cur- 
sus $1.65 

Friedrich Dittes. Methodik der Volks- 
schule. 8vo. Leipzig $1.35 

Fel. A. P. Dupanlonp. TJie Child. Trans- 
lated by Kate Anderson. 12mo. 
Boston. Cloth. $1.50 

G. M. Dursch. Pddagogik, oder Wis- 
senschaft d£r christtichen Erziehung auf 
dem Stdndpunkte des katholischeuGlau- 
bens. 8vo. Tiibingen. $3.00 

J. E. Erdmann. Vorlesungen iXber aka- 
demisches Sclmlleben und Studium. 
8vo. Leipzig. $2.20 

F. W. Farrar. On Some Defects in Pub- 
lic School Education. A Lecture de- 
livered at theRoyallnstitution. February 
8th, 1867. 16mo. London. Paper. 10.40 



THE DICTIONAEY OF EDUCATION AND INSTRUCTION 



H. Feix und F. Jung. Burch die Hei- 
math. Umschaii in Haus, Schiile, 
Garten, etc. Ein Beitrag zur Ericeite- 
rung des sinrdichen und sittlichen Vo7'- 
stellungskreises unserer Kleinen. 8vo. 
Wiesbaden. $0.90 

B. Fohmann. Ber sinnliche und religios- 
sitiliche Anschauungsuntei^'icht als 
Lehrstoff zu eleinentaHschen ^prach-y 
Benk- und ISlyldbuiigen nach bewdhrten 
Grundsdizen fur dtJitscJie Elemental 
undVolksschulen. 8vo. Stuttgart. $1.10 

G. Frohlich. Bie Volksschide der Zu- 
kunft ein Ideal fur die Gegemcart. 
Ausfuhrlich dargestellt. 8vo. Jena. 
$0.85 

J. H. Fuhr und J. H. Ortmann. Ber An- 
schauungs - Unterricht in dei' Volks- 
schule. Ode)\- Anschauen, Benken, 
Spi'echeii und Schreihen zur Begmn- 
dung der Kealien des Styls und der 
Grammaiik. 8vo. 4 parts. Dillenburg. 
$3.25 

John Gill. Tke Art of Teaching Young 
Minds to Ohse^xe and Think. 12mo 
London. $0.80 

Systems of Education. A History 

and Ciniicism. 12mo. London. Cloth, 
$1.00 

Ed. Giinther. Kurzer Wegweiser fill 
LeJire7% stotternde Kinder zu heileu, 
8vo. Neuwied. $0.55 

F. Harder. Tlieoretiscli - praktisches 
Handbuchfiir den Anschauungsiinter 
richt. Mit hesonderer Berucksichtigung 
des Elementarunterrichts in den Rea- 
lien. Svo. Altona. $2.20 

Thomas Hughes. Tom Broicn's School 
Bays at Rugby. 12mo. Boston. Cloth. 
$1.00 
L. T. Knauss. Bas erste Schuljahr ohne 
Lese- und Schreibuntei-richt oder Bar- 
stellung eines Anschauungs- TJntei^nchts, 
der den gesammten Schulunterricht be- 
griindet. Svo. Stuttgart. $1.50 
Simon S. Laurie. On PHmary Bistruc- 
tion in relation to Education. With 
an Appendix on ''Secondary Instruc 
tion". Svo. London. Cloth. $1.80 
"Of the highest possible interest, and afFords 
sohitions of many psychological problems that 
are still debated among the learned in such 
matter." IVestminsier Review. 

G. Luz. Ber Anschauungsunterricht filr 
die untern und mittlern Elassen der 
Volksschule. Svo. Wiesenateig. $1.05 

L. Meyer. Bie Zukunft der deutschen 
Eochschulen und ihrer Vorbildungs- 
anstaUen. Svo. Breslau. $0.40 

C. F. V. Nagelsbach. Gymnaslal-Pdda- 
gogik. Svo. Erlangen. $0.90 



John Henry Newman. Idea of a Uni- 
versity; considered in Nine BiscourseSy 
Occasional Lectures, and Essays. 8vo. 
London. Cloth. $2.80 

Olin's College Life; Its Theory and Prac- 
tice. 12mo. N. Y. Cloth. $1.50 

Alexandre Ott. Un Mot sur V Instruction 
jyrimaire. Vancien Regime, la Revolu- 
tion, VEpoque actueUe. Svo. Nancy. 
$0.80 

H. Pestalozzi. Buch derMUtter, oder 
Anleitung fUr Miltter, ihre Kinder be- 
merken und reden zu lehren. 8vo. Leip- 
zig, 1803. About $0.50 
. Wm. Piderit. Zur Gymnasialpdda- 



K 



Hrsg. v. Alb. 



gogik. Schulreden. 
Freibe. Svo. $1.85 
Noah Porter. The Ameincan Colleges 
and the American Public. With after- 
thoughts on college and school educa- 
tion. 12mo. N. Y. Cloth. $1.50 
K. Richter. Ber Anschauungsunterricht 
in den Elementarklassen. Nach seiner 
Aufgabe, seiner Stellung und seinen 
Mittebi dargestellt. Gekronte Preis- 
schrift. Svo. Leipzig. $1.05 
H. Rigg. National Education in its 
Social Condition and Aspects and Pub- 
lic School Education. English and 
Foreign. Svo. London. Cloth. $3.60 
— History and Present Position of 
Primary Education in England. 12mo. 
London. Paper. $0.25 
C. L. Roth. Gymnasial-Pddagogik. Svo. 

Stiittgart. $1.65 
P. Rousselot. Pedagogic a Vusage de 
Tenseignementprimaire. ISmo. Paris. 
$1.25 
K. A. Schmid. Biemodernen Gymnasial- 

reformer. Svo. Stuttgart. $0.20 
Edmond Schmidt. Elnstruction^ pri- 
maire a la Campagne en Lorraine, il 
y a cent ans, d''apres Venquete de 1779. 
bvo. Paris. $0.40 
K. Schmidt. Gymnasialpddagogik. Svo. 

Gotha. $1.65 
W. Schrader. Erziehungs- und TJnie)'- 
richtslehre filr Gymnasien und Real- 
schiden. Svo. 2 vols. Berlin. $3.85 
W. F. L. Schwartz. Bei^ Organismus der 
Gymnasien in seiner praktischen Ge- 
staUung. Svo. Berlin. $1.35 
Ernst Senckel. Bie Schulsparkassen. 
Eine Benkschrift. Svo. Berlin. $0.40 
Sir J. K. Shuttleworth. Public Edu- 
cation as affected by the minutes of the 
Committee of PHvy Council /rom 1846 
to 1852. 8vo. London. Cloth. $3.60 
One of "the most important works on Eng- 
lish education known to me". Donaldson. 

313 



THE DlCTlONAJn OF i:i)L)c;ATJON AKi) INSTIIUCTION 



12nio. 



12niu, 



S. H. Taylor. V/assical Study. 
Andover. Cloth. $2.00 

Method of Classical Study. 

Hoston. Cloth. 11.25 

0. F. Thwing. American Colleges: their 
Sludfiils (iinl their Worlc. l(>mo. N. V. 
Clotii. $1.00 

F. Wiedennnn. Ber Lehrer der Kleinen. 

Kin prakiisiher Rath(jeber fi\r juuqe 
Kleinentiirlehrt'r, UhcrhdKpt' aher e'iti 
Buck fiir Alle, welche sich Jilr die Er- 
ziehiDig der K/einen iuteres'siren. Hvo, 
Lcipzij-;. $1.10 

A. S. "Welch. Object I.es.wns. Vluw 
N. V. Cloth. $1.00 

Wm. Whewell. On th e Principles of En- 
yhsh L'niversity h'dncafion. i2ino. 
JLoiulon. Cloth. About $1.2.) 

A. Wittstock. Ueher die (rriindunq pa- 
d(Ujo<jischer Facultdien an den Ciiivcr- 
situten. 8vo. lUoichonxU'. $().:\{) 



Herm. Qoldammer. /.«■ ,/ardin d'enfantsA 

Dons et Occupations a hisage (i^\ 



{)ar liO 
ierlitj. 



2. The Kindergarten. 
Henry Barnard. Kindergarten and 



Papers. Hvo. Hartlonl, 



T/ieo- 

With 

Wi(Mi. 



Cliild Cu'ti(r( 
Cloth. $;{..')() 

Adf. Diesterweg. Der Unterricht in do 
Iv/ein-kinder-Schule, oder die Antaiujc 
der Unterweisuntj and Jiildnnq in der 
\ olksschule. Hvo. Kiclclrld. '$0..-..-. 

Adolf Douai. The h'inden/artcn { 
Manual for the Intro luctionl of Fnrhc's 
Susfeni of J'riniary Juluchtion into 
I id>ic Schools, and for the rse of 
Mothers and Private VVac/av.s-. With 
h. philea. 12mo. N. Y. Cloth. $1.00 

A. S. Fischer. Per Kindenjarfen 
rettsch -praktischrs Namlbuch 
woodcuts and 10 plates Svo 
$I.:J5 

Friedrich Frobel. Die Padaqoqik des 
{V';/:'^^,'/''"-% ^'V'/""/.r// 'Friedrich 
Fnhels liber das Spiel und die Spid- 
gegenstande des hiudes. With 4 pi, 
$3 3o'"' ""'^ i<'l>l'Uos. Svo. H(Mlin: 

.rants, ,r / usage ,lcs in.-^litut rices et de^ 

m^V. of if'' -^ ^'"K'-"viMf,'. n.,,1 sovoral 
pages of Music. Hvo. Kruxolles. $3 70 
"?/!.?■ ;?ol'^,'^")»»er. Friedrich FroheL 
z^ehunJ^'T:''^'^''' f<'n<f^:>:<iarten.F/ 
l^'Tlin. $0 

:{i-i 



I 12mio. N. V. Paper. 



niiTcs de famille, des S(dles d'hsdeet 

des ecoles primaires. Aeec nne intra- 

ductn>n de Mnie.la baronne de Makkn- 

ii()i/iv.-IU'Ei,()\v. Tradud de ratleina'nd 

liOi'is Koi KNiKK. 120 plates. 8vo 

Taper. $3.70; cloth. $4.10 

— -• Per Kindergarten. Uandbuch det 

FrobeCsclteu Erzieh u)ufs)uetho<U% Spiel- 

gaben und Jie.'ichafliqunifen. \ack 

Frdbcl's Schriften und ilcn Schrifteu 

der Frau li. n. .MarenhoUz-Jiiihnc bear- 

beitef. Mit lieitragen v. 15. v. M.vkkn- 

ii()i,T/.-UrKi,o\v. Hvo. 2 vols, lierliii. 

$3.(50. Cloth. $4.70 

I. Fr. Probers Spielgahen for das 
vorschulpfichtnje Alter. With (iO plates. 
Cloth. $2.(10 

II. Fr. Priibers Peschdftigungen filr 
das eiO'.'fchulpdichfiqe Alter. With (50 
l)lates. Cloth. $2.iO 

aoldammer-Reffelt. Die Finordnung 
des Kiudergartcus in das Schulirese'n 
<ler <;enicindc. \(ieh II. (Joi.dammku 
niit Piick-sicht auf antcrilyani.^che ]'er- 
hdltnis.'ie darge.^iellt von U. liia-KKi/r. 
12mo. X. V. I'apcr. $0.1;", 

Joseph Gruber. Die Fddaqogik des 
hiudergartens und der 'Jieu-ahran- 
l!"'I: ^^'''' ^*' platofl. Hvo. Leipzi^r. 

^^ ^,' ^ailmann. P^ntr Lectures on 
hirh/ Child Culture. 12imo. Milwaukee. 
I a per $0.2;-); Flexible Cl(»th $0.40 
— A'/n(?<>r.7(r;Vr» Culture in the Faniilu 
aiHlh indergarten : A complete Skrtch 
of hrnbel s System of Pari,/ Pducation, 
adapted to American Institutions. For 
the use of Mothers aud Teachers. Ilhis- 
(^nited. 12mo. Cineinuati. Cloth, act 
$0. <■) 

Handbook for the Kindergarten. With 
plates. 4to. Spriiif,Mi.>l,|. " I'apo,-. $1.00 

^^5^' ; ^^"^?- ^.^"scJ^mann. Friedrich 
Fiobel. Pic Kntirickelunq seiner Fr- 
zieliungsiMce in .'icinem t.eben. fivo 
K'senacli. $2.fiO 

■"TwS'f;" '^''ST&^ Kindergartens nach 
Fuihel. Far Mutter und Kindcrqart- 
nerinnen. 12nio. N. y. $„.i;, •"" 

Eleonore Heerwart. .1/, Abi^tract 
Lesi^ons on the Kindergarten 



of 
Si/.'iteni 



gn i nto the .senior Students of the Prain 
\ng College, Stock well. 12nio 
Paper. $o.5o 



London. 



ndergarten; iis 
An Address. 
$0.12 



THE DICTIONARY OF EDUCATION AND INSTRUCTION 



Der Kindergarten in Amerika. Entsteh 
img, Wesen, Bedeutung und Erzieh 
nngsmittei des FrobeVschen Systems 
vud seine Anicendwtg anf hiesige Km 
hdltuisse. Fur Mteru,' Lehrer und 
Kinderfreunde kurz davgesteUt. 12mo. 
N. Y. Paper. $U.15 

Aup.Kohler. DieneueErziehung. Gnind 
zilge der pddagogischen Ideen Fr. Fro- 
hers It lid deren Anniendong in Famitie, 
Kindergarten loid Sclmte. l'2mo. N. V, 
Paper. $0.15 

Die Praxis des Kindergartens 

Theoretisch-praktische Anleitang znm 
Gehraaclte der FrobeVsvhen Erzie/i. 
ungs- and Bildungsmittel in Haus, Kin 
dergarten und. tSchule. bvo. 3 vols 
Weimar. $5.10 

(I. With is plates. $1.70; IT. With 40 
plates. $1.70; 111. With '2 plates. $1.70) 

Maria Kraus-Boelte. The Kindo^garlen 
and the Mission of Woman; n'ly Ex- 
perience as Trainer of Kindergarten 
Teachers in, this Covntry. An Address. 
N. Y. ^'et $0.0(> 

and John Kvaus. TJie Kindergor 

ten Guide. An Illustrated Hand-JJook 
designed for the Self- Instruction of 
Kindergartiiers, Mothers, and I\'urses 

No. L $().:{."); cloth $().H.) — No. 2. $0.70; 
cloth $1.00 — No. a. $0.50; doth $0.80 — 
No. 4. $0.70; cloth $1.00 — No. 6. $0.70; 
cloth $1.00 

Matilda H. Kriege. Tlie Child, its Ka 
ture and Belations. An Elucidation, oj 
FrwbeVs Principles of Education. A 
free rendering of the German of the 
'Baroness Makenholtz-Buelow. 12nio 
N. Y. Clolh, gilt top. $1.00 

Friedrich Frcphel. A Inographiral 

Sketch. With portrait. Piino. N. Y. 
Paper $0.25; cloth $0.50 

Mary J. Lyschinska. The Kindergarten 
Principie; its Educational Value and 
Chief Applications. 12 mo. Loudon. 
Cloth. $1.80 

B. von Marenholtz-Biilow. T/ie Wen^ 
Education by Work, according to Frw- 
beVs Method. Translated by Mrs. 
Horace Mann, with the assistance of 
T^EOPOLD Noa. 12mo. Camden. Net 
$0.75 

Reminiscences of Friedrich Froebel. 

Translated by Mrs. Horace Mann. With 
a Sketch of the Life of Friedrich Froibel 
by Emily Shirreff. 12nK). Boston. 
Cloth. $1.50 

Bas Kind und sein Wesen. Bei- 

trdge zum Verstdndniss der FrobeV- 
scfien Erziehungslehre. 8vo. Berlin. 
$1.10 



B. von Marenholtz-Biilow. Lie Arbeit 
und die neue Erziehung nach FrobeOs 
Methode. 8vo. Cassel. $1.65 
Mayo. Lessons on Objects in a Pesta- 
lozzlan School. 12mo. San Francisco. 
Cloth. $1.75 

Eiiz. Mayo. Practical Remarks on In- 
fant Ldncation, for the Use of Schools 
and J'rivate Families. 12mo. London. 

$0.50 

Bertha Meyer. Von der Wiege bis zur 
Schule an der Hand Frdr. Frobel's. 
8vo. Berlin. $0.85 

Lina Morgenstern. Bas Paradies der 
Kindheit. Fine axisfuhrliche Anleitung 
fiir Mutter undErzieherinne^i., Friedrlcii 
Friibeis Spiel - Beschdftigungen in 
Haus- und Kindergarten prahtisch aus- 
zuUben. With 150 woodcuts. 8vo. 
Leipzig. $1.65; cloth $2.05 

C. B. Morehouse. The Kindergarten: 
its Aims, Methods, and Results. A 
practical Explanation of the System of 
Froebel. Illustrated. 12mo. N. 1. 
Paper. $0.25 

Joseph Pa3me. The Science and Art of 
Education (a Lecture), and Principles 
of the Science of Education, as exhibited 
in the Phenomena founded on the un- 
folding of a Young Child's Poivers un- 
der the Influence of Katural Circum- 
stanres. 12mo. N. Y. Paper $0.15; 
cloth $0.40 

Froibel andthe Kindergarten System 

of Elementary Instruction. r2mo. 
N. Y^ Paper. $0.15 

A Visit to German Schools. With 

discu,ssions on the Kindergarten. 12mo. 
London. $1.80 

Elizabeth P. Peabody. Guide to the 
Kindergarten and Intennediate Class. 
And Moral Cidture of Infancy. By 
Mary Mann. Eevised' Edition. r2mo. 
N. Y. Cloth. $1.25 

Education of the Kindei-gartner. 

A Lecture. 12rao. N. Y. Paper. $0.25 

Tlie Nursery. A Lecture. 12mo. 

N. Y. Paper. $0.25 
W. F. Phelps. Pestalozzi. 12mo. N. Y. 

Paper. $0.10 

— Frwhel. 12mo. N. Y. Paper. $0.10 
H. Posche. Frdr. Frobel's entwickehid- 

erziehende Menschenbildung. 8vo. 2 
parts. Hamburg. $0.90 

— Frdr. FrobeVs entwickelnd-erzie- 
hende Menschenbildung ( Kindergarten- 
Pddagogik) als System. Eine umfas- 
sende wortgetreue Zusammenstellung. 
Svo. Hamburg. $1.65 

315 



THE DICTIONARY OF EDUCATION AND INSTRUCTION 



Joh. Fr. Ranke. Aus der PraxAsfiir die 
Praxis in Kinderstube und Kleiyikin- 
derschule. 8vo. Elberfeld, $0.40 

Johannes and Bertha Ronge. A practical 
Guide to the English Kindergarten, 
for the use of Mothers, Governesses, 
and Infant- Teachers, being an exposi- 
tion of FroebeVs System of Infant- 
Teaching, accompanied loith a great 
variety of Instructive and Amusing 
Games, and Industrial and Gymnastic 
Exercises. With numerous Songs set 
to Music and arranged for the Exer- 
cises. With 71 lithographic plates. 4to. 
London. Cloth. $2.10 

Frdr. Seidel. Kaiechismus der prakti- 
schen Kinder gdrtnerei. With 35 illustr. 
16mo. Leipzig. $0.45 

Emily Shirreff. The Kindergarten. Prin- 
ciples of FroebeVs System and their 
Bearing on the Education of Women. 
Also, Remarks on the higher Education 
of Women. 8vo. London. Cloth. $1.25 

Edward Wiebe. The Paradise of Child- 
hood. A Manual for Self- Instruction 
in Fr. FroebeVs Educational Principles, 
and a practical Guide to Kinder- Gart- 
ners. With 74 plates. 4to. Spring- 
field. Paper. $1.50; cloth $2.00 



3. Commercial, Military, Naval, 
Industrial and Technical Edu- 
cation and Schools ; Art Edu- 
cation and Schools. 

Hwiry Barnard. Military and Waval 
ScJwols in France, Prussia, Bavaria, 
ItoJy, Russia, Holland, England, and 
the United States. 8vo. Hartford. Clotli. 
$5.50 

Science and Art. Systems, Insti- 
tutions, and Statistics of Scientific In- 
struction, applied to National Indus 
tries in diferent Countries. Vol I 
8?o. Hartford. Cloth. $5.50 

G. Coulie. The Education of Boys for 
Business. Being practical Suggestions 
to Parents on the Education of their 
Sons for commercial Life. 12mo. Lon- 
don. Cloth. $1.60 

E. Diirre. Pddagoglsches Wanderbuch. 
Reisebericht ube?- Industrie-, Stnck- und 
])dhschulen, ihre Methode, Organisa- 
tion und Erweiterung, nebst einer kriti- 
schen Beleuchtung der Strohiiechterei. 
8vo. Gotha. $0.60 

J. Langl. Modern Art Education. 12mo. 
Boston. Cloth. $0.75 

H. R. Palmer. Music-Class Teaching. 
12mo. Cincinnati. $0.50 I 

316 



Elizabeth P. Peabody. The Identification 
of the Artisan a)id Artist the proper 
object of American Education. Illus- 
trated by a Lecture of Cardinal Wise- 
man, on the Relation of the Arts of De- 
sign loith the Arts of Production. With 
an Essay on Fk(ebel's Reform of Pri- 
mary Education. 8vo. Boston. Paner. 
$0.20 ^ 

Walter Smith. Art Education, Scho- 
lastic and Industrial. Illustr. Svo. 
Boston. Cloth. $5.00 

C. B. Stetson. Technical Education: 
What it is and what American Public 
Schools should teach. An Essay based 
on an Examination of the Methods and 
Results of Technical Education in Eu- 
rope, as shoion by Official Reports. 
16mo. Boston. Cloth. $1.25 

Thos. Twining. Technical Training. 
Being a suggestive sketch of a National 
System of Industrial Instruction, foun- 
ded on a general diffusion of Practical 
Science among the people. Svo. Lon- 
don. Cloth. $4.50 

4. Normal Instruction and 
Schools; and Teachers' 
Institutes. 
Henry Barnard. Normal Schools, and 
other Institutions, Agencies and 
Means designed for the Professional 
Education of Teachers. Svo. Hartford. 
Cloth. $5.50 

S. P. Bates. Institute Lectxires on Mental 
and Moral Culture. 12mo. N. Y. Cloth. 
$1.50 

Method of Teachei^s'' Institutes, and 

the Theory of Education. 12mo. N. Y. 
Cloth. 0.75 

H. G. Brzoska. Die Nothwendigkeit pd- 
dagogischer Seminare a^if der tfniversi- 
tat und ihre za-eckmdssige EinHchtung. 
Svo. Leipzig. $1.50 

H. Deinhardt. Ueber Lehrerbildung und 
Lehrerbildungsanstalten. Svo. Wien, 
$0.20 

F, A. W. Diesterweg. Zur Lehrerbil- 
dung. Svo. Frankfurt a. M. $0.20 

Pddagogisches Wollen und Sollen. 

Dargestellt fur Lente, die nicht fertig 
sind, aber eben darum Lust haben, 
nachzudenken. Svo. Frankfurt a. M. 
$0.90 

— Wegiceiser zur BildungfUr deutsche 
Lehrer. Svo. 3 vols. Essen. $7.70 
W. B. Fowle. Teachers^ Institute; or. 
Familiar Hints to Young Teachers. 
12mo. N. Y. Cloth. $1.25 



THE DICTIONARY OF EDUCATION AND INSTRUCTION 



T. Griinewald. Wie erhdlt sich der Leh- 
rer den idealen Schwung und die Begeis- 
ierung fiir seinen Beruf ? 8vo. Liine- 
burg. $0.20 

F. Leutz. Die Theorie und P}'axis des 
pddagogischeii UnterHchts an dendeut- 
schen Schullehrer-Seiiiinarien. 8vo. 
Karlsruhe. $0.50 

C. Nohl. Pddagogische Seminarien auf 
Universitdten. 8vo. Neuwied. $0.55 

W. F. Phelps. Teacher^ s Hand- Book for 
the Institute and the Class Room. 
12mo. N. Y. Cloth. $1.50 

E, B. Pusey. CoUegiate and Professional 
Teaching and Discipline. 8vo. N. Y 
Cloth. $1.00 

Wm. Russell. Normal Training. Vlnxo 
Hartford. Cloth. $1.50 



5. Schools for the Blind, Deaf 

and Dumb, and Imbecile; 

and Reform Schools. 

T. R. Armitage. T/te Education and 
Employment of the Blind. Wliat it has 
been, is, and ought to be. Bvo. Lou- 
don. Cloth. $1.00 

H. Barnard. Reformatory and Preven- 
tive Agencies. 8vo. Hartford. Cloth 
$5.50 

— - Tribide to Gallaudet; with Hidonj 
of Deaf-Mute Instruction and Institu- 
tion. 8vo. Hartford. $0.50 

Mary Carpenter. Reformatory Schools, 
for the children of the Perishing and 
Dangerous Classes, and for Juvenile 
Offenders. 8vo. London. Cloth. $2.00 

T. Guthrie. Ragged Schools. Vlmo. N. Y. 

Cloth. $1.00 " 
M. Hill. Anleitung zum Sprachunterricht 

taubstummer Kinder. Svo. Essen. $1.35 

Wm. H. Latham. First Lessons for 
Deaf-Mutes. IGmo. Cincinnati. Paper. 
$0.30 

H. P. Peet. Course of Instruction for 
Deaf and Dumb. 16mo. N. Y. Part I. 
Cloth. $0.75; Part XL, not published; 
Part III. Paper. $1.00 

Isaac Lewis Peet. Language Lessons. 
Designed to introduce young learners, 
deaf-mutes and foreigners, to a correct 
understanding and use of the English 
Language. 12mo. N. Y. Cloth. $1.25 

Ed. Rossler. Beitrdge zur Forderung des 
Taubstummen - Bildungswesens. Svo. 
Leipzig. $0.75 



Alexandre Rodenbach. Les Aveugles e, 
les Sourds-Muets. Histoire, instruction 
education, biographie. 2e Edition, re- 
vue, corrig^e e't augment^e d'un alpha- 
bet des sourds-muets et deux fac-similes. 
12mo. Tournai. $0.60 

Jos. Ruppert. Ueber Erziehung, Unter- 
richt und Versorgung der Blinden. Svo. 
Mtinchen. $0.30 

Ludwig V. St. Marie. Der Blinde und 
seine Bildung. 8vo. Leipzig. $0.25 

E. Seguin. Idiocy, and its Treatment by 
the Physiological Method. 8vo. N. Y. 
Cloth. $5.00 

Traitement moral, Hygiene et Edu- 
cation des Idiots et des autres enfants 
arrieres ou retardes dans lew deve- 
loppement, agites de mx^uvements invo- 
lontaires, debiles, muets non sourds, 
begues, etc. 12mo. Paris. $2.10 

Henr. Soder. Die Methodik des Sprach- 
Unterrichts in Taubstumm.en-Anstalien. 
8vo. Hannover. $0.40 



6. Education of Women, or Fe- 
male Education. 

Aime-Martin. The Education of Mothers 
of Families; or, the Civilization of the 
human race by Womeyi. 12mo. Lon- 
don. Cloth. $2.00 
"Ce sont les femmes qui font et defont les 

nations." Saint Pierre. 

Mme. CI. Beaudoux. La Science mater- 
nelle; ou education morale et intellec- 
tuelle des jeunes filles. 12mo. Paris. 
$1.40 

Anna C. Brackett. The Education of 
American Girls, considered in a SaHes 
of Essays. 12rno. N. Y. Cloth. $1.75 

Edu. Cauer. Die hohere Mddchenschule 
und die Lelirerinnenfrage. Svo. Berlin. 
$0.40 

Edward H. Clarke. Sex in Education; 
or, A Fair Chance for the Girls. 16mo. 

Boston. Cloth. $1.25 
A strong statement of the physiological ar- 
gument against co-education. 

A. Dammann. Die deutsche BiXrger- 
Mddchenschule. Ein vollstdndiger Un- 
ierrichtsplan. Mit besonderer Benut- 
zung der einschldgigen. Liter atur. Svo. 
Berlin. $1.00 

Darwin's u. Hufeland's Anleitung zur 
physischen und moralischen Erziehung 
des loeiblichen Geschlechts. Hrsg. v. F. 
A. Ammox. Svo. Leipzig. $0.40 

Emily Davies. The Higher Education of 
Wo7nen. 12mo. London. Cloth. $1.40 

317 



THE ITIOTIONARY OF EDUCATION AND INSTRUCTION 



Fr. Fen§lon. De V Education des Filles. 
12mo. Paris. $1.20 



Chas. Kingsley. Eealth and Education. 
12mo. N. y. Clotli. $1.75 



F. J. Giinther. Briefe an eine Mutter aius. Lauri 
uber die wichtigslen Mangel in derjetzi- 
gen Erziehung der Tochter hd'herer 
JStdnde. 8vo. Bielefeld. $1.50 



Harriet Martineau. Household Educa- 
tion. 12mo. Boston. Cloth. $1.25 

J. S. Mill. On Liberty: The Subjection 
of Women. 8vo. N. Y. Cloth. $2.50 

Hannah More. Strictures on the Modern 
System of Female Education; toith a 
View of the Frinciples and Conduct 
2)revalent among Women of Baiik and 
Fortune. 2 vols. 12rao. London. Cloth. 
$1.00 

J. Orton. Liberal Education of Women. 
12mo. N. Y. Cloth. $1.50 

Mrs. A. H. L. Phelps. Fireside Friend; 
Female Student: Advice to young 



Ladies on Education. 
Cloth. $1.50 



12nio. N. y, 



Manuale di ginnastica edu- 
cativa ad iiso delle scuole elementari 
inaschili e femminUi. 4. Macerata. 
$0.90 



J. Preis. Die beste Avsstattung fiXr junge 
Bamen. 8vo. Brieg. $1.50 

K. V. Ranmer. Die Erziehung der Mad 
Chen. 8vo. Giitersloh. $0.90 

Miss E. M. Sewell. Principles of Edu 
cation drawn from Nature and Rece- 
latiou, and applied to Female Educa- 
tion in the upper Classes. 12mo. N. Y. 
Cloth. $2.00 

Emily Shirreff. Intellectual Education 
and its Liflueuce on the Character a)ul 
Happiness of Woinen. 12nio. London 
Cloth. $2.40 

Augnstin Thery. Conseils aux meres 
sur les moyens de diriger et dHnstruire 
leur files, a Vusage des meres, des iu- 
stitutrices et des nialtresses de pensions. 
12mo. 2 vols. Paris. $2.40 

John Todd. The Daughter at School. 
12ino. Northampton. Cloth. $1.50 



7. Physical Education. 

Cath. E. Beecher. Physiologij and Cal- 
isthenics in Schools and Families. 
Over 100 Illustr. lOmo. N. Y. Clota. 
$1.00 

H. Klencke. Schul-Didtetik. Praktische 
Gesundheitspflege in Schulen und Ce- 
sundheitslehre fur Knaben und Mad- 
efien in der Schulzeit. Ein Buch fur 
TTnterrichtsbehorden, Schtdvorstiinde, 
Lehrer und Eliern. 8vo. Leipzig. $0.70 

318 



Dio Lewis. Neio Oymnastics for Men, 
Women and Children. Illustr. 12mo. 
Bost n. Cloth. $1.50 

Archibald Maclaren. A System of Phys- 
ical Education, Theoretical and Prac- 
tical. With lUnstrations. 12mo. Lon- 
don. $2.25 

E. Paz. La Gymnastique dbligatoire. 
12mo. Paris. $0.40 

La Gymnastigue raisonnee, moyen 

infaillible de precenir les inaladie's et 
de pt^olonger I'existence. 8vo. Paris. 
$1.75 

Aug. Ravenstein. Volksturnhuch, im 
Sinne von Jahn, Eiselen und Spiess. 
8vo. Frankfurt a. M. $2.95 

C. J. Robinson. Hand- Book of the Phys- 
ical Training in Schools, including full 
Directions for a Variety of Calisthenic 
Exercises. Adapted to Classes of all 
Grades, and to Social and Individual 
Practice. 16mo. San Francisco. Paper. 
$0.75 

Math. Roth. Gymnastic Exercises ac- 
cording to Ling''s system. 12mo. Lon- 
don. $0.50 

R. Schenstrom. Reflexions sur V Educa- 
tion physique et les Mouvements cor- 
porels a Voccasion du projet de loi sur 
la Gymnastique scolaire obligatoire 
dans les ecoles de France. 8vo. Paris. 
$0.75 

D. G. M. Schreber. Aerztliche Zimmei'- 
gymnastik,oder System der ohne Gerdth 
und Beistaiid uberall ausfuhrbaren heil- 
gymnastischen Frelilbungen. 8vo. Leip- 
zig. Board?^. $1.10 

R. Th. Trail. The Illustrated Family 
Gymnasium. 12mo. N.Y. Cloth. $1.50 

J. Madison Watson. Manual of Calis- 
thenics: A systematic Drill- Book with- 
out Apparatus, for Schools, Families, 
and Gym7iasiums. With mnsic to ac- 
company the Exercises. 8vo. Illustr. 
N. Y. Clotli. $1.20 

Hand - Book of Calisthenics and 

Gymnastics : A Complete Drill-Book 
for Schools, Families, and Gymna- 
siums. With music to accompany the 
Exercises. 8vo. Illustr. N. Y. Cloth. 
$2.00 



THE DICTIONARY OF EDUCATION AND INSTRUCTION 



8. Moral and Beligious Educa- 
tion^ Sunday Schools. 

Jac. Abbott. The Teachet-. Moral In- 
fluences employed in the Instruction- 
and Government of the Young. I'imo. 
Illustr. N. Y. Cloth. $1.75 

J. Abercrombie. The Philosophy of the 
Moral Feelings., xoith Additions by 
Jacob Abbott. 12mo. N. Y. Cloth. 
$0.90 

Oulture and Discipline of the Mind, 

and other JEssays. 12mo. Ediuburgh. 
Cloth. $1.40 

Amos Bronson Alcott. Record, of a 
Sc/iool, exemplifying the Principles 
and Methods of Moral Oulture. iGmo. 
Boston. Cloth. $1.50 

F. Beard. The Blackboard in the Sun- 
day-School. A Practical Guide for 
Superintendents and Teachers. 12mo. 
N. Y. Cloth. $1.50 

Cath. E. Beecher. T/ie Religious Train 
ing of Children in the Family, the 
School, and the Church. 12mo. N. Y 
Cloth. $1.75 

C. Bray. Education of the Feelings, a 
Moral System for Secular Schools. 8vo 
Loudon. Cloth. $1.00 

N. C. Brooks. School Manual of Devo- 



tion. For Daily Exercises consisting 
of Selections, Hymns, and a Fonn of 
Prayer. 18mo. N. Y. Cloth. $0.75 

Scripture Manual; w, Religious 

Exercises for the Morning and Even 
ing of each Day in the Month. For 
Academies, Schools, and Families. 
18mo. Phila. Cloth. $0.75 

And. Combe. A Treatise on the Physio- 
logical and Moral Management of In- 
fancy. For the Use of Parents. ISmo. 
N. Y. Cloth, $0.75 

W. F. Crafts. Childhood. The Text 
Book of the Age. A Book for Parents, 
Pastors, and Sunday-School Teachers. 
12mo. Illustr. Boston. Cloth. $1.50 

Through the Eye to the Heart, or. 

Eye- Teaching in the Sunday School 
Revised Edition, with Illustrations for 
the International Lessons for 1877. 
12mo. Paper. S0.50; cloth $1.00 

F. Dittes. Naturlehre des Moralischen 
und Kunstlehre der moralischen Er- 
ziehung. 8vo. Leipzig. $0.55 

M. G. Durscb. Pddagogik oder Wissen- 
schaft der christlichen Erziehung, auf 
dem Standpunkte des katholischen 
Glaiihens dargestellt. 8vo. Ttibingen. 
$3.00 



B. W. Dwigbt. Higher Christian Edu- 
cation. 12mo. N. Y. Cloth. $1.50 

Ed. Eggleston. I'he Manual. A Prac- 
tical Guide to the Sunday- School Work. 
32nio. Chicago. Paper, $0.30; cloth, 
$0.75 

A. M. Gow. Good Morals and Gentle 
Manners for Schools and Families. 
12mo. Cincinnati. Cloth. $1.25 

D. S. Gregory. Christian Ethics; or. 
The True Moral Manliood and Life of 
Duty. A Text-Book. 12mo. Phila. 
Cloth. $1.50 

A. W. Grube. Von der sittlichen Bildung 
der Jugend im ersten Jahrzehend des 
Lebens. bvo. Leipzig. $0.90 

William T. Harris. Moral Education in 
the Public Schools. A. Paper. 24 pp. 
$0.06 

J. S. Hart. Tlie Sunday-School Idea; 
consisting of an Exposition of the Prin- 
ciples which underlie the Sunday- School 
Cause, and setting forth its Objects, 
Organization, Methods, and Capabili- 
ties. 12mo. Phila. Cloth. $1.50 

Excelsior^ or Essays on Politeness, Edu- 
cation, and the Means of Attaining 
Success in Life. Part I. For Young 
Gentlemen, by T. E. Howard. — Partll. 
For Young Ladies, by a Lady (R. U. 
V.) 12mo. Baltimore. Cloth. $1.50 

Chr. Palmer. Evangelische Pddagogik. 
8vo. Stuttgart. $2.65 

E. P. Peabody. Record of Mr. AlcotVs 
School exemplifying the Principles and 
Methods of Moral Culture. 16mo. 
Boston. Cloth. $1.50 

Mrs. Lincoln Phelps. The Student; or 
Fireside Friend: with an Appendix on 
Moral and Religious Education. 12mo. 
N. Y. Cloth. $1.50 



Cath. A. Sedgwick. Morals of Manners; 
or, Hints for our Young Folks. 16mo. 
N. Y. Cloth. $0.60 

Fz. Splittgerber. Die moderne wider- 
christliche Pddagogik, nach ihren 
Bahnbrechern Rousseau imd Basedow 
vom Standpunkte des Evangeliums aus 
dargestellt undbeurtheiit. 8vo. Leipzig. 
$0.75 

J. Stadlin. Die Erziehung im Lichte der 
Bergpredigt. 8vo. Aarau. $1.30 

J. Todd. The Sabbath- School TeaOier. 
Designed to aid in elevatina and per- 
fecting the Sabbath-School System. 

, 12mo. Northampton. Cloth. $1.50 

319 



THE DICTIONAEY OF EDUCATION AND INSTRUCTION 



V. SCHOOL ECONOMY. 

School Laws; School Architecture; School Hygiene; School 
Furniture and Apparatus; School Supervision, Discipline, and 
Management; School Libraries and Museums; Teachers' Manuals. 



Jac. Abbott. Gentle Measures in the 
Management and Training of the 
Young, or the Principles on which a 
firm Parental Authority may he estab- 
lished and maintained without molence 
or anger, and the Right Development 
of the Moral and Mental Capacities be 
promoted by methods in harmony with 
the Structure and Characteristics of the 
Juvenile Mind. A Book for the Far 
ents of Young Children. 12mo. N. Y, 
Cloth. $1.75 

The Teacher. Moral Influences em 

ployed in the Instruction and Govern 
meni of the Young. 12mo. N. Y. Cloth, 
$1.75 

E. Ackermann. Das Ehrgefuhl im 
Bienste der Erziehung. 8vo. Eisenach 
$0.20 

Charles F. Adams, Jr. The Public Li 
brary and the Common Schools: Three 
Papers on Educational Topics. I. The 
Public Library and the Public Schools; 
II. Fiction in Public Libraries, and 
Educational Catalogues; III. The New 
Departure in the Common Schools of 
Quincy. 16mo. Boston. Paper. $0.25 

A. B. Alcott. Becord of a School. 16mo 
Boston. Cloth. $1.50 

H. Barnard. American Graded Public 
Schools, ivith Flans of School- Houses 
and Equipment and Begulations for 
Schools in Cities. 8vo. Hartford. Cloth. 
$3.50 

School Codes: Constitutional Pro- 
visions respecting Education, State 
School Codes, and City School Begu- 
lations. 8vo. Hartford. Cloth. $3.00 

School Architecture: Pynnciples, 

Plans and Spec ificatioyis for Structures 
for Educational Purposes. 8vo. Hart- 
ford. Cloth. $5.00 

C. W. Bardeen. Common School Law. 
A Digest of the Provisions of Statute 
and dom^mon Law as to the Belations 
of the Teacher to the Pupil, the Parent 
and the District. "With four hundred 
references. 16mo. Syracuse. $0.50 

A. J. Bicknell. School Houses and 
Church Architecture. 4to. N. Y. Cloth. 
$3.00 

320 



J. R. Blackiston. Hints on School Man- 
agement. 12mo. London. Cloth. $0.75 

Buckham. Hand-books for Young Teach- 
ers. I. First Steps. 16mo. Syracuse. 
Cloth. $0.75 

F. Buisson. Devoirs d^Ecoliers Ameri- 
cains^ recueillis d V Exposition de Phi- 
ladelphie (1876). 16mo. Paris. 

Lyman Cobb. The Evil Tendencies of 
Corporal Punishment as a means of 
Moral Discipline in Families and 
Schools , examined and discussed. 
Part I. Objections to the use of the 
Bod. Part II. Substitutes for, and 
Preventives of the use of the Bod. 8vo. 
N. Y. 1847. About $2.00, 
The whole book deserves study, though 

Part II. is particularly valuable. 

H. Cohn. Die Schulhygiene aufder Pa- 
riser Wettausstellung, 1878. 8vo. Bres- 
lau. $0.55 

J. C. Dalton. A Treatise on Physiology 
and Hygiene; for Schools, lamilies, 
and Colleges. 18mo. lUustr. N. Y. 
Cloth.$1.50 

E. W. DeGraff. The School-Boom Guide, 
embodying the Instruction given by the 
Author at Teachers'' Institutes in New 
York and other States, especially in- 
tended to assist Public School Teachers 
in the Practical Work of the School- 
Boom. 16mo. Syracuse. Cloth. $1.50 

M. et Mme. Delon. Methods intuitive, 
exercises et travaux pour les enfants 
selon les methodes et les precedes de Pes- 
talozzietde Froebel. With241ith. plates. 
8vo. Paris. $2.45 

Theodore Dwight, Jr. The School-Mas- 
ter's Friend, with the Committee- Man'' s 
Guide ; containing Suggestions on 
Common Education, Modes of Teach- 
ing and Govet^ning, arranged for ready 
Beference; Plans of School -Houses, 
Furniture, Apparatus, Practical Hints 
and Anecdotes on Different Systems, 
etc. For daily use in Common l^chools; 
also Directions to Committee-men and 
Trustees of Schools, and Friends of 
Education, on the Means of improving 
Schools this Year. Plates. 12mo. N. Y. 
1835. About $1.50 



THE DICTIONARY OF EDUCATION AND INSTEUCTION 



S. F. Eveleth. School-House Architecture. 
Designs for School- Houses, toith Per- 
spectives^ Elecations, Plans, Sections, 
Details, and Specijicatiotis, all drawn 
to loorking scale, with methods of Heat- 
ing and Ventilation. 4to. N. Y. Cloth. 
$4.00 

F. Falk. Die sanitdts-polizeiliche Ueber- 
wachung hoherer und niederer Schulen 
und ihre Aufgahen. 8vo. Leipzig. $0.90 

J. Frev. Der rationelle Schultisch als 
das hauptsdchlichste VerJdUungsmittel 
der schlechten Brusteniirickelung, der 
schlechten, Ualtung und der JRUckgrals- 
verkrilinmimg. With 8 plates. 8vo. 
Zurich. $0.55 

A. Freimund. Ueber korperliche Zilch- 
tigung beim TInterricht. Bvo. Leipzig. 
$0.40 

John Gill. Introductory Text-Book to 
School Education, Method, and School 
Managemeni. 8vo. London. Cloth 
$1.20 

J. S. Hart. In the School- Room; or, 
Chapters in the Philosophy of Educa- 
tion. 12ino. Phila. Cloth. $1.25 

A. Holbrook. SchoolManagement. 12mo. 
Cincinnati. Cloth. $1.50 

Fr. S. Jewell. School Government: A 
Practical Treatise, presenting a 
Thorough Discussion of its Facts, 
Pri)iciples, and their Applicalio)is; 
with Critiques upon Current Theories 
of Pu)ushmenl, and Schemes of Ad- 
ministration. Vlmo. N. Y. Cloth. $1.50 

J. Johonnot. School Houses. Bvo. N. Y. 
Cloth. $3.00 

P. W. Joyce. A Hand-Book of School 
Management and Methods of Teach- 
ing. 12mo. London. $0.80 

C. Kehr. Die Praxis der Volksschule. 
Ein Wegweiser zur Fuhrung einer ge- 
regelten Schuldisciplin und zur Erthei- 
lung eines methodischen Schulunter- 
riciites fur VolksschuUehrer und fiir 
Solche, die es icerden icollen. 8vo. 
Gotha. $1.50 

John Kennedy. The School and the 
Family: The Ethics of School Rela- 
tions. 12rao. N. Y. Cloth. Sl.OO 
Abounds in good sense and in practical 

suggestions. 

C. Klett. Der Lehrer ohne Stock. Gegen 
die korperliche Strafe in der Schule. 
8vo. Stuttgart. $0.30 

G. Kopp. Rlustrirtes Hand- und Nach- 
scldagebuch der vorziXglichsten Lehr- 
undX eranschanlichxing smittel aus dem 
Gesammfgebiete der Erziehung und des 



Unterrichts filr Fachleute an Lehran- 
stalten und Instituten jeder Art, insbe- 
sondere an Volksschulen, Fortbildungs- 
schulen, hoheren Blirgerschulen, Leh- 
rerseminarien, Realschulen, Gymna- 
sien, etc. With 576 woodcuts. 8vo. 
Bensheim. $2.75 

F. Kuchler. Die Reform unserer Volks- 
schule in hygienischer Richtung. 8vo. 
Bern. $0.25 

L. W. Leeds. A Treatise on Ventilation. 
Compjrising Seven Lectures delivered 
before the Franklin Institute, showing 
the great want of improved methods of 
Ventilation in our buildings, giving the 
chemical and physiological process of 
respiration, comparing the effects of the 
various methods of heating and lighting 
upon the ventilation, etc. 8vo. lllustr. 
N. Y. Cloth. $2.50 

D. F. Lincoln. School and Industrial 
Hygiene. 16mo. Phila. Paper. $0.50 
Should be studied by every teacher. 

Horace Mann. Lectures and Annual 
Reports on Education. New Edit. 8vo. 
Boston. Cloth. $3.00 

F. Migerka. Das Unierrichtswesen in 
den Vereinigten Staaten. 8vo. Wien. 
$0.60 

T. Morrison. Mamial of School Manage- 
ment. 12mo. Glasgow. Cloth. $1.60 

John F. Moss. Handbook of the New 
Code of Regrdations, 1880; and other 
Official Instructions, Orders, and Cir- 
culars, of the Education Department. 
12mo. London. $0.80 

Felix Narj oux. Reglement pour la con- 
struction et r ameublement des maisons 
d'ecole, arrete par le Ministre de V In- 
struction Publiqite, suivi dhm Com- 
mentaire et des plans explicatifs. 8vo. 
Paris. $0.75 

F. M. Norman. The Schoolmaster's 
Drill Assi.ttant: A Manual for Ele- 
mentary Schools. Boys\ Girls\ or 
Mixed; by aid of ivliich any Teacher 
may easily Drill his or her own 
Scholars. Being Military Drill simpli- 
fied and adapted for School use; with 
Class Drill, Dual Desk DHll, and other 
^iseftd Exercises, specially prepared for 
Schools. lllustr. 12nio. London. Cloth. 
$0.80 

Charles Northend. The Teacher^ s Assist- 
ant, or Hints and Methods in School 
Discipline and Instruction; being a 
Series of Familiar Letters to one enter- 
ing upon the teacher^ s ivork. 12 mo. 
N. Y. Cloth. $1.50 

321 



THE DICTIONARY OF EDUCATION AND INSTRUCTION 



W. H. Payne. Chapters on School Sicps)'- 
vision. A practical Treatise on Super- 
intendence; Arranging Courses of 
Study; The Freparafion and Use of 
Blanks, Records, and Reports; Exam- 
inations for Promotions, etc. I'imo. 
Cincinnati. Cloth. $1.25 

Jas. Pillans. Rationale of Discipline in 
the High School of Edinburgh. 8vo. 
Edinburgh. Cloth. $2.00 

L. A. Prevost-Paradol. Du Role de la 
Famille dans l Education. 8vo. Paris. 
$0.90 

Ambroise Rendu. Code universitaire ou 
lots, statuts ftreglenients de V Un Iversite 
de France jusqu'au \er Janvier 1846. 
8vo. Paris. $4.50 

A. R'ant. Hygiene Scolaire, Influence 
de VEcole s'ur la Sanie des Enfants. 
IBmo. Paris. $1.05 

VHygiene et V Education dans les 

Internats, Lycees, Colleges. Pensionats, 
liaisons d' Education, EcolesNormales. 
Ecoles Speciales, Universites. etc. Hvo. 
Paris. 

E. R. Robson. School Architecture. 
Fracticallnformatio)! on. tliePlann ing, 
Fesigning, "^ Building, and Furnishing 
of Scliool- Houses. 8vo. Illustr. Lon- 
don. Cloth. $6.30 

S. Roggero. Le in)stre scuole considerate 
in relazio)ie coir iqiene e colla morale. 
8vo. Viterbo. $0190 

N. W. T. Root. School Amusetaents; or 
how to make the school interesting. 



Embracing simple rules for military 
and gymnastic exercises, and hints 
upon the general management of the 
school-room. 12mo. N. Y. Cloth. $1.00 
M. Mc.N. Walsh. The Lawyer in the 
School- Room. Comprising the Laics 
of All the States on important Edxica- 
tional Subjects. 12mo. N. Y. Cloth. 
$1.00 
All admirable book. 

W. H. Wells. The Graded School A 
Graded Course of Fistruciion for 
Public Schools: with copio^is practical 
Directions to Teachers, and Observa- 
tions on Primary Schools, School Dis- 
cipline, School Records, etc. 12mo. N.Y. 
Cloth. $1.00 

J. P. Wickersham. School Economy. A 
Treatise on the Frep>arotion, Organi- 
zation, Employments, Government, and 
Authorities of Schools. 12mo. Phila. 
Cloth. $1.50 

G. Wilson. A Handbook of Sanitary 
Scie)ice. 12mo. London. Cloth. $3.40 

L. Wintrebert. Consultation hygihiique 
a projios de la Co)istrnction et de I'A- 
mi^nblenienf d'nne Ecole primaire a 
Lille. 8vo. Paris. 10.55 

A. Wolpert. Theorie mid Praxis der 
Ventilation mid Heizung. 8vo. 2 vols. 
Braunschweig. $7.35 

W. T. Wylie. Lessons and Prayers for 

\ the Scliool- Room. 8vo. Philadelphia. 
Cloth. $3.00 

T. Ziller. Die liegierung der Kinder. 8vo. 
Leipzig. $0.75 



VI. HISTORY OF EDUCATION, 

Histories; Biographies and Memoirs; Descriptions of Edu- 
cational Systems; Catalogues and Reports. 



H. Andre. ]\^os M'altres, hier. Etudes sur 
lesprogriis de Veducation. et sar les deve- 
loppements de V instruction populaire 
en France, depuis les temps les p>lus re- 
cules jusqiCd J. J. Rousseau. 16mo. 
Paris. $1.25 

Nos Maitres, aujourd'hui. Etudes 

sur les progres de Veducation, les 
meViodes et les etablissements de tons 
les degres en France depuis J. J. Rous- 
seau jwsgw'd nos jours. 12mo. 2 vols. 
Paris. $1.75 

M. Arnold. Higher Schools and Uni- 
versities in Gei^many. 8vo. London. 
Cloth. $2.00 

322 



H. Barnard. German Teachers and 
Educational Reformers: Memoirs of 
Eminent Teachers and Educators with 
contributions to the History of Educa- 
tion in Germany. 8vo. Hartford. Cloth. 
$3.50 

French Teachers, Schools, and Ped- 
agogy — Old and New. 8vo. Hart- 
ford. Cloth. $3..50 

English Teachers, Educators, and 

I*romotors of Education. .8vo. Hart- 
ford. Cloth. $3.50 

American Teachers, Educators and 

Benefactors of Education. With Por- 
traits. 8vo. 5 vols. Hartford. Per 

, vol. $3.50 



THE DICTIONARY OF EDUCATION AND INSTEUCTION 



H. Barnard. Pestalozzi ami Swiss Fed- V. Cousin. On the State of Education in 
agog ij: Me I iioh\ and Educational Prin- Holland, as regards Schools for the 
ciples, Meiliods, and Influence of John Working dasses and the Poor. 12mo. 
llKNiiY I'KSTALOz/.i, and Biographical Loadou. Clotli. About $3.00 

Sketches of seceral of his ^issistants Eeport on the State of Public In- 

and Disciples; together with Selections struction in Prussia. 12mo. London. 
from his Publications, and Accounts] About $2.00 

'of Schools and Teachers inSirilzerlandA .^-^^^^ ^.^^^^^^ 1^^ ^^ ^ reorganization of the 
6vo. Hurttord. Cloth. »j.oO school system of France, and had a marked 

A. Beer U. F. Hoche'^ffer. Die I'ort-\i'^^^ie^cs on the educational policy of this 
schritte des rnterricJitsn-esens in de>i '^°""'^'^y* 



CuUurstaaten Europa's. 

\. iJas U)iterrichtsicesen in Frank- 
reich wtd Oesterreich, 8vo. Wien. $4.40 

II. 1. Das UnfeiTichtstcesen Buss- 
lands und Belgiens. 8vo. Wien. $1.85 

11. 2. Das Unterrichtswesen der 
Schweiz. 8vo. AViea. $2.63 

E. Biber. R. Pestalozzi and his Plan 

of Education; an. Accomd of his Life 

and Writings^ toith copious Extracts 

from his Works. 8vo. Loudou. Cloth. 

About $2.20 

E. Biot. Essai sur VHistoire de V Instruc- 
tion Publique en Chine et de la Corpo- 
ration des Lettri's, d£pnis les anciens 
temps jusqud nos jours. Svo. Paris. 
$J.G0 

Ed. Bock. Der Yolksschul- Unierrichi 
Svo. Breslau, $2.20 

J. Boehm. Geschiehte der Pddagogik 
7/v it Charakterbildern heriiorragewler 
dagngen and Zeiten. Als Comnien 



F. Cramer. Geschichte der Erziehung 
und des Vtderrichts im AUerthume. 
8vo. 2 vol3. Elberfeld. S6.60 

Geschichte der Erziehung und des 

JJnterrichts in den Niederlanden wdh- 
rend des Mittelalters^ mit Zurilckfuh- 
rung auf die allgemeinen literarischen 
una pddagog isciien Verhdltnisse jener 
Zelt. Svo. Elberfeld. $1.85 

Frdr. Dittos. Geschichte der Erziehung 
und des Unterrichtes. Svo. Leipzig. 
$1.10 

J. Donaldson. Lectures on the History 
of Education inPrussia and England, 
and on kindred Topics. 12mo. Edin- 
burgh. Cloth. $1.40 
A book of great value. 

M. Duscliak. Schulgesetzgebung und 
Methodik der alien Israeliten, nebst 
einem geschichtlichen Anhang und 
einer Beilage ilber hohere israelitische 
Lehranstaiten. 8vo. Wien. $1.35 



7 - 

tar zu seiner '' kurzgefassten Geschichte^ EducationaWode of the PrussianNation. 

der Pddaqoqik.'' Svo. 2 vols. Nlira-' With its Present Form. \%mo, hondiOn. 



$1.00 



berg. $2.05 
Wm. Oland Bourne. History of the Pub-\W. Everett. On the Cam. Lectures on 

lie School Society of the City of Xewi the University of Cambridge in Eng- 

York. Svo. N. Y.' Cloth. $5.00 j land. V2mo. Cambridge. Cloth. $1.00 
Joh. Bruestlein. Luther's Einflnss auf 'W.'Exa.^ex. The Life and Educational 

dasVolksschuhcesen und den Religions- 



unterricht. 8vo. Jena. $0.75 

G. Brnckbach. Wegweiser durch die 
Geschichte der Pddagogik. 8vo. LeiiJ- 
zig. $0.55 

Au^ustin Cochin. Pestalozzi. Sa Vie, 
.s"('.s Oeuvres, ses Methodes d'' Instruction 
et d'Educcdion. 12mo. Paris. $0.50 

E. Celesia. StoHa deUa Pedagogia ita- 
liana da Pittagora ai di nostri. Svo. 
Mdano. $2.00 

C. Compayre. Histoire critique des Doc- 
trines' de V Education en France depui^ 
le seizieme siecle. Svo. 2 vols. Paris. 
$2.45 

"Le livre de M. Compayre est certaine- 
ment un des plus complets et des plus interes- 
»a:us qu'on pulsse lire." 

Revue des Deux Mondes. 



Principles of David Stow, Esq., 
Founder of the Training System of 
Education. With portrait. 8vo. London. 
Cloth. $2.50 

Th. Fritz. Esquisse d'un Systeme com- 
plet d' Instr\iction et d' Education, et de 
leur Histoire. 8vo. 3 vols. Strassburg. 
$4.50 

Fred. J. Furnivall. Education in Early 
England. Some Notes used as fore- 
words to a Collection of Treatises on 
''Manners and Meals in Olden Times'-, 
for tlie Early English Text Society. 
'8vo. London. $0.40 

j^. Giordano. DelV istruzione pubblica 
in Italia net suoi rapporti economici, 
morali e religiosi. Osseroazioni e 
proposte. Parte I. 16mo. Napoli. 
$0.75 

323 



THE DICTIONAEY OF EDUCATION AND INSTEUCTION 



James Grant. The History of the Burgh 
Schools of Scotland. 8vo. Londou 
Cloth. $3.70 

W. N. Hailmann. Twelve Lectures on 
the History of Pedagogy, delivered he 
fore the Chicinnatl Teachers^ Associa 
tion. l'2mo. Cincinnati. Cloth. $0.75 

W. T. Harris. Annual Beports of the 
Schools of St. Louis. 8vo. St. Louis. 
Cloth. Each $1.50 
These Reports are among the most valu- 
able educational documents published in this 
country. 

Ja. Morgan Hart. German Universities; 
A Becord of Pei'sonal Experience and 
a Q'itical Comparison of the System of 
Higher Education in Germany u-iih 
those of England and the United States 
12mo. N. Y. Cloth. $1.75 

W. B. Hazen. The School and the Army 
in Germany and France. With a 
Diary of Siege Life atVersaUles. 12rao. 
N. Y. Cloth. $2.50 

H. Heppe. Das Schulwesen des Miitel- 
alters und dessen Beform itn sech- 
zehnten Jahrhundert. 8vo. Marburg. 
$0.55 

C. Hippeau. V Instruction Puhlique en 
Ayigleterre. 12mo. Paris. $0.60 

V Instruction Puhlique dans les 

Etats du Nord, — Suede., Norwege, 
Danemark. 12mo. Paris. $1.40 

V Instruction Puhlique en AUe- 

magne. 12mo. Paris. $1.25 

V Instruction Puhlique aux Etats- 

Unis. 12 mo. Paris. $1.40 

V Instruction Puhlique en Italic. 

12mo. Paris. $1.25 
V Instruction Puhlique pendant la 

Revolution. 12mOo Paris. $1.40 
All the books on education written by this 
author are trustworthy and valuable. 

John S. Hittell. A Brief History oj 
Culture. 12mo. N. Y. Cloth. $1.50 

V. A. Huber. The English Universities. 
An abridged translation edited hy 
F. A. Newman. 8vo. 3 vols. London. 
Cloth. About $12.00 

G. P. R. James. On the Educational In- 
stituiions of Germany. 12mo. London. 
Cloth. About $3.00 

Education in Japan. A Series of Let- 
ters addressed hy prominent Americans 
to Arinori Mori, Japanese Minister. 
12mo. N. Y. Cloth. $1.50 

Thomas Jefferson and J. C. Cabell. Let- 
ters on Early History of the ZTniversity 
of Virginia, 8vo, Kichmond. Cloth. 
$5.00 ' 

324 



Sophia Jex-Blake. A Visit to some 
American Schools and Colleges. 8vo. 
London. Cloth. $1.75 

F. E. Keller. Geschichte des preussi- 
schen Volksschulwesens. 8vo. Berlin. 
$2.95 

C. Kehr. Geschichte der Methodik des 
deutschen Volksschulunterrichts. Unter 
Miticirkung einer Anzahl Schulmdnner. 
8vo. 3 vois. Gotha. $6.60 

L. Kellner. Erziehungsgeschichte. 8vo. 
Essen. $2,95 

Frdr. Korner. Geschichte der Pddago- 
gik von den dltesien Zeiten his aif die 
Gegenwart. Ein Handhuchfilr Geist- 
liche und Lehrer heider Confessionen. 
8vo. Leipzig. $1.50 

Herman Kruesi. Pestalozzi: His Life, 
Wo7'k, and Influence. With portraits 
and illustr. 8vo. Cincinnati. Cloth. 
$2.25 

Ja. Leitch. Practical Educationists and 
their System of Teaching. 12mo. Glas- 
gow. Cloth. $3.00 

(Locke; Pestalozzi; Bell; Lancaster; Wil- 

derspin; Stow; Spencer.) 

Letters jfi^om Hofwyl hy a Parent on the 
Educational Institutions of Fellen- 
BEKG. 12mo. London. Cloth. $2.25 
Contains a series of letters written by RI. 

C. WooDBRiDGE, and originally published in 

the An7ials of Education, 

Fred. Lorenz. The Life of Alcuin. 
Translated by Jane Mary Slee. 12mo. 
London. $0.75 

Horace Mann. Annual Beports on Edu- 
cation from 1839 to 1848. 8vo. Boston. 
Cloth. $3.00 

Mrs. Horace Mann. The Life of Horace 
Mann. By his Wife. 8Vo. Boston. 
Cloth. $3.00 

Baroness Marenholtz - Buelow. Bemi- 
niscences of Frederic Froehel Trans- 
lated by Mrs. Horace Mann. 12mo. 
Boston. Cloth. $1.60 

H. Mascher. Das deutsche Schulwesen 
nach seiner historischen Entwickelung 
und den Forderungen der Gegenicart. 
Vom Standpunkte der Staats- und Ge- 
meindeverwaltung, sowie der National- 
okonomie dargestellt und heleuchtet. 
8vo. Eisenach. $1.50 

J. M. D. Meiklejohn. An Old Educa- 
tional Beformer; — Dr. Andrew Bell. 
12mo. London. Cloth. $1.40 

Everardo Micheli. Storia delta Pedago- 
gia italiana dal tempo dei Bomam a 
tutto il secolo XVIII. 16mo. Torino, 
$1.50 



THE DICTIONARY OF EDUCATION AND INSTRUCTION 



J. Michelet. iVbs Fils. 8vo. Paris. $1.25 

(Livre III : Rabelais; Montaigne; Come- 
nius; The Jesuits; Port Royal; Fenelon; Locke; 
Rousseau; Pestalozzi; Froebel.) 

Frederic Monnier. V Instruction Popw 
laire en AHemagne, en Suisse et dans 
les Pays Scandinaves. 8vo. Paris. 
$2.G5 

J. Morley. Rousseau. 8vo. 2 vols. Lon- 
don. Cloth. $9.00 

Struggle Jor National Education. 

Bvo. London. Cloth. $1.20 

J. Bass. Mulllnger. The Schools o/ 
Charles the Great and the Bestoration 
of Education in the Ninth Century. 
8vo. London. Cloth. $3.00 

John Henry Newman. Historical Sket- 
ches of Universities. 12mo. 3 vols. 
London. Cloth. $6.30 

Jules Paroz. Histoire Universelle de la 
Fedagogie. 16mo. Paris. $1.50 
For a work in small compass, this is the 
best History of Education within my knowl- 
edge. 

W. H. Payne. A Short History of Edu- 
cation: being a reprint of the article 
^^ Education'^ from the ninth edition of 
the Encyclopedia Britannica. 16mo. 
Syracuse. Cloth. $0.50 

F. "W. Pfeifer. Bie Volksschule des 19. 
Jahrhunderts in Biographien hervor- 
ragender SchtUmdnner. 8vo. Nlii-nberg. 
$3.40 

Philohiblius (Dr. I. P. Brockett). History 
and Progress of EduQOiion. 12mo. 
N.Y. Cloth. $i.50 

B. H. Quick. Essays on Educational 
Beforniers, 12nio. Cincinnati. Cloth. 
$2.00 

(Schools of the Jesuits; Ascham, Mon- 
taigne, Ratich, Milton; Comenius; Locke; 
Rousseau's Emile; Basedow and the Phi- 
lanthropin; Pestalozzi; Jacotot; Herbert 
Spencer; Thoughts and Suggestions about 
Teaching Children; Some Remarks about 
Moral and Religious Education; Appendix. 

Josiah Quincy. A History of Harvard 
University, 8vo. 2 vols. Boston. 
Cloth. 

S. S. Randall. History of the Common 
School System of the State of New 
York. 8vo. N.Y. Cloth. $3.00 

C von Baumer. Geschichte der Pdda- 
gogik vomWiedei^aufblilhen klassischej^ 
Studienhis auf unsereZeii. 8vo. 4 vols. 
Glitersloh. $9.15. Singly: I. Bas Mit- 
telalter his zxi Montaigne. $2.00 — 
II. Yom Tode Baco's bis zum Tode 



PestalozzVs. $2.30 — III. Unterricht. 

$2.65— IV. Biedeuischen Universitdten. 

$2.20 
Copious translations from this work are to 
be found in Barnard's American Journal of 
Education. 

J. E. T. Rogers. Education in Oxford: 
Its method, its aids and its rewards. 
12mo. London. 

E. Sassi. LHstruzione pubhlica in Torino 
dot medioevo ai tiempi nostri. Con note 
e doGumenti. 8vo. Torino. $1.35 

H. I. Schmidt. History of Education, 
ancient andmodern. 18mo. N.Y. Cloth. 
$0.75 

K. Schmidt. Die Geschichte der Pdda- 
gogik dargestellt in iveltgeschichtlicher 
Entwickelung und im orqanischen Zu- 
sammenhan'ge mit dem Cidturlehen der 
Volker. Vermehrt und verhessert vo7i 
Wich.Lange. 8vo. 4vols.Cothen. $11.00 
Singly: I. Geschichte der Pddagogik in 
der vorchristhchen Zeit. $2.20 — IL 
Geschichte der Pddagogik in der christ- 
lichen Zeit. $1.85 — ill. Geschichte dei- 
Pddagogik von Luther his Pestalozzi. 
$2.95 — I Y. Geschichte der Pddagogik 
von Pestalozzibis zur Gegenwart. $3.30 

Geschichte der Erziehung und des 

Urderrichts. Filr Schid- und Predigt- 
amiscandidaten, fiXr Volksschullehre)\ 
filr gehildete Eltern und. Erzieher iiber- 
sichtUch dargestellt. Hrsg. von VVich. 
Lange. 8vo. Cothen. $1.50 

J. K. Shuttleworth. Four Periods of 
Public Education, 1832, 1839, 1846, 
1862. 8vo. London. Cloth. $4.90 

J. H. Smart. Indiana Schools and the 
Men who have worked in them. 12mo. 
Cincinnati. Cloth. $1,00 

Goldwin Smith. The Reorganization of 
the University of Oxford. 16mo. Lon- 
don. $0.80 

A. P. Stanley. Life and Correspondence 
of l.homas Arnold. 8vo. 2 vols. N.Y. 
$2.50 

Howard Staunton. The Great Schools 
of England. An Account of the Foun- 
dations, Endowments, and Biscipline 
of the chief Seminaries of Learning 
in England. 8vo. London. Cloth. 
$3.00 

Heinrich Steffens. German University 
Life, 'ihe Story of my Career as a 
Student and Professor. With Per- 
sonal Remembrances of Goethe, Schil- 
ler, Novalis, and Oth&^s. Translated 
by W. L. Gage. 12vo. Phila. Cloth. 
$1.25 

325 



THE DICTIONAEY OF EDUCATION AND INSTRUCTION 



A. Stockl. Lehrbuch der Geschichte der 
Fddagogik. 8vo. Mainz. $J.10 

Karl Strack. Geschichte des deutschen 
Volksschulwesens. 8vo. Gutersioh. $2.05 

W. B. S. Taylor. History of the l^'nivei- 
sity of Dublin: Its Origin., Progress, 
and Present Condition. Illustr. 8vo. 
London. Cloth. $2.50 

And. Ten Brook. American State Uni- 
versities; their Origin and Progress. 
A History of Congressional University 
Land-Grants; aparticular Account of 
t le Pise and Development of tlie Uni 
tersity of Michigan; and Hints toward 
the Future of the American University 
System. 8vo. Cincinnati. Clotli. $3.5u 

Augustin Thery. Histoire de VEduca 
tion en France., depuis le Ye siecle 
jusqu' a 1838. 8vo. 2 vols. Paris. $4.20 

L. B. Tylor. Primitive Cidture. 8v 
2 vols. N. Y. ('loth. $7.00 



A. Vogel. Geschichte der Pddagogik als 
Wissettschaft. 8vo. Gutersioh. $2.75 

G. A. Walton. Report of Examinations 
in Norfolk County., Mass. 8vo. Boston. 
Paper. $0.50 

Aclalb . Weber . Die Geschichte der Volks- 
schulpddagogik and der Kleinkinder- 
erziehung, mit hesonderer Berdcksich- 
tigu)ig der Letzleren. Ein Handbuch 
fiir Lehrer imd Lehrerinnen, sowie 
zam Gebrauche in Seminarien. 8vo. 
Eisenach. $1.85 

L. Wiese. Das hohere Schulwesen in 
Preussen. HistoriscJi-statistische Dar- 
stellung, im Auftrage des Ministers d,er 
geistlichen., Unterrichts- undMedicinal- 
Angelegenheiten herausgegeben. With 
illustr. 8vo. 3 vols. Berlin. $14.60 

German Letters on English Educa- 
tion. Written during an Educational 
Tour in 1876. 8vo. Loudon. Cloth. 
$2.!)0 



VI!. MISCELLANEOUS EDUCATIONAL LITERATURE. 

Educational Periodicals. Proceedings of Educational Asso- 
ciations; Mixed Educational Writinc^s; Reviews. 



1. Educational Periodicals. 

(The figures — e. g.ilS — deuottj the number 
of issues per year, and the size of th,ese.) 

Allgemeine deutsche Lehrerzeitung. Ber- 

THELT. Leipzig. 5214. $2.40 net. 
American Journal of Education. Bar- 
nard. 418. Harlford. $4.00 
The American fournal of Education — from 
1856 to 1880 — consists of 30 volumes (over 
26,000 pages), with 800 wood cuts of struc- 
tures for educational purposes, and 130 por- 
traits of eminent educators and teachers. 
Cloth. $135; half goat, $164. Single vols., 
cloth. $5.00; half goat, $5.50 

A complete set of this Journal is invalu- 
able. It is a mine of information on educational 
topics of every sort: historical, biographical, 
practical, statistical. American subjects are co- 
piously treated. The various works published 
l)y Mr. Barnard are made up of selections from 
his Journal. Unfortunately, the same matter 
IS made to do service under different titles; so 
that for educational libraries, the more econo- 
mical plan is to buy a complete set of the 
Journal rather than the republications under 
special titles. 

American Journal of Education. Mer- 
wiN. 1214. St. Louis. $1.00 

Bulletin Offlciel deV Instr action Primaire 
du Depdrtement de la Seine. 12 1 8. Pa- 
ris. $2.00 

Canada Educational Monthly. Adam. 
1218. Toronto. $1.50 

32G 



Canada School Journal. 12 1 4. Toronto. 

$1.00 
CentralbUUt fiir die Unterrichts- Verwal- 

tung in Preussen. 12 18. Berlin. $2.10 net. 
Common School Teacher. Crisler and 

Fields. 1218. Bedford. $1.00 
Cornelia. Zeitschrift fur hdusliche Er- 

ziehung. Pii.z. 10|8. 'Leipzig. $1.35 net. 
Le Cowv'ier de V Enseignement Libre. 

1218. Paris $3.60 
Eclectic Teacher. Chase and Vance. 12 | 8. 

Lexington. $1.00 
VEcole Laique. Remie hebdomadaire de 

V Instruction popidaire et laique. St. 

Martin. 5218. Paris. $2.40 
VEcole Nouvelle. Pevne de P Education 

integrate, scientijique, industrielle, ar- 

tistiqne et de la'^ reforme pMagogique. 

Francolin. 1218. Paris. $2.10 
Education. Bicknell. 6 1 8. Boston. $4 00 
V Education. Journal des Ecoles prl- 

maires. 5218. Paris. $3.00 
Educational Journal of Virginia. Fox. 

1218. Richmond. $1.00 
The Educational Neu^s. A Weekly Be- 

cord and Review. 52 j 4. Edinburgli. 

$2 00 net. 
Educational Times, and Journal of the 

College of Preceptors. 12 1 4. London. 

$2.00 net. 



J'HK DICriuNAKY OF EDL'CAiiUX AND INSTRUCTION 



Educational Weekly. Waogoner. 52 | 4. 
Chicago. $2.50 

Educationist. Hoss. 1218. Topeka. $1.00 

Die Erziekuiig der Gefjemcart. Schkudkk. 
1214. Dresden. 81.20 net. 

Erziehmifjs- Blatter. Klemm. 1214. Mil- 
waukee. $2.00 

Indiana School Journal. Bkll. r2|!S. 
Indianapolis. ^l.aO 

L' List met ion. PuhHnne. liecae d^ 



(et-\ 
tres, sciences el arts. Hlot. .1214. i'aris. 

$r.2o j 

lotra Normal Moidfdij. 12 18, Suouf.i 
Uubuque. 81.00 j 

La Jeune Mi^re, on I' Education du pre- 
mier age. ./oar mil iUn.'itre de i'enfance. 
Bkochakd. 12 1 8. Palis. $2.40 i 

Journal des Listituteurs et des Bih!io-\ 
theques Fubliques Scolaires. 52 1 S. Pa-i 
ris. $2.40 

Journal General de V Instr action Fab- 
lique. 1218. Paris. .^G.OO 

Journal of Education, Xew England and 
National. BicKNKLL. 52 1 2. Bostoii. 
S2.50 

Journal of Women''s Educational Urdon. 
Shikkeff and Bartley. 12|s. Ijondon. 
82.00 net. 

Kimlergarten, Beu-ahranMalt und Ele- 
uientarklasse. Kuhler. Schmidt, Sej- 
DEL. 1218. Weimar. 81.20 net. 

Kindergarten Messenger and the Neu^ 
Education. Hailmanx, 1214. Syra- 
cuse. $1.00 

Louisiana Journal of Education. Lusher 
and Rogers. 12|8. New Orleans. 81.00 

Magazin fur Lelir- und Lerniuittel. 
.Schroder. 24 j 4. Leipzig. $1.20 net. 

Manuel General de l' Ltstruction Pri- 
ma ire, journal des Listituteurs et des 
Listitutrices. 52 1 8. Paris. 82.40 

Maryland Scliool Journal. Neweix and 
Edwards. 12 | 8. Baltimore. $1.25 

New York School Journal. Kellogg. 
52 1 2. N. Y. $1.50 

Normal Teacher. Sherrill, 1218. Dui'.- 
ville. 81.00 

Ohio Educational Monthly and Natio)ial 
Teacher. Henkle. 12 | 8. Salem. 81.50 

Organ der Tauhstumrnen- vnd Blinden- 
AnstaUen. Matthias. 12iL Pried- 
ber<)-. 81.35 net. 

Pacific School and Home Journal. Lv- 
SER. 12 1 8. San Francisco. $2.00 

Pddagogische Blatter fiir Lehrerhildung . 
Kehr.* 6 1 8. Gotlia. $3.60 net. 

Pddaqogisches Archiv. Krumme. 10 1 8. 
Stettin. $4.80 net. 



Pddagogium. Monatschrift fiir Erzie- 
hung utid Unterricht. Dittes. 12 1 8 
Leipzig. $3.00 net. 

Parents' and Teachers' 3£onthly. Cline 
Williamson, Hardin. 1218. Louis- 
ville. $1.00 

Pennsylmnia School Journcd. Wickers- 
ham. 12 j 8, Lancaster. $1.50 

iJer praktische Scliuhrunin. Richter. 
8i8. Leipzig. 83.00 net. 

Primary Teacher. Sheldon. 1218. Bos- 
ton. $1.00 

The Princeton lieciew. Gls. New York 
$2.00 
This Review is noticeable for the high qual- 
ity of its papers on educational subjects. 

liepertorium der Piidaaoqik. Heindl. 

1218. Ulm. $1.75 net. 
Recue de VEnseignement Secondaire 

Specicd et de V Enseignement Profess io- 

nel. 1218. Paris. $2.G0 
Revue des Deux Ifondes. 2418. Paris. 

$13.75 net. 

Questions of national education are dis- 
cussed with great clearness and ability in the 
pages of this Review. 

Revue Ldernationale de VEnseignement. 
1)kevfi-s-Brisac. 1218. Paris. $7.20 

Remie Pe'dagogique. Hanriot. 12112 
Paris. $2.70 

Rheinische Blatter fiir Erziehtmg und 
Uyitoricht. (Founded in 1827 bv A. 
DiESTKRWEG.) Lange. 6|8. Frank- 
furt. $2.40 net. 

Rn)tdschau iiber das Unterrichtswesen 
alter Lander. Konzl u. Klose. 2418. 
Berlin. $3.60 net. 

TJie School Board Chronicle. An Educa- 
tional Record and Peview. 5214. 
London. $4.75 net. 

School BuUelin and New York State 
Educational Journal. Bardeen. 12 | 4. 
Syracuse. $1.00 

Te.vas Journcd of Education. Hollings- 
WORTH. 12 14. Austin. $2.00 

Wisconsin Journcd of Education. Whit- 
ford. 12 1 8. Madison. $1.00 

Zeifschrift fiir das Gymnasialwesea 
Htrschfelder u. Kern. 12|8. Berlin. 
$6.00 net. 

Zeitschrift fiXr die Oestei^reichischenGym,- 
nasien. Tomascuek. 1218. Wien. 
87.20 net. 

Zeitschriftfiir weiblicheBildunq. Central- 
orqan fur deutsches 3Id<ichenschul- 
vesen. 'Schornstein. 12 j 8. Leipzig. 
$3.60 net. 

Zeitunq fiir das hoh&^e Untertnchtsiresen 
Deutschlands. Weiske. 52 | 4. Leip- 
zig?. $2,40 net. 



THE DICTIONARY OF EDUCATION AND INSTRUCTION 



2. Proceedings of Educational 
Associations; Mixed Educa- 
tional Writings ; Reviews. 

American InstUide of InstruGtio7i. Lect- 
ures. Boston. 1830—1880. Each about 
$1.00. Price variable according to scare 
ity of volumes. 

C. W. Bardeen. Common School Law 

for Common School Teachers. To 

which are added the Questions given at 

the New York Examinations for State 

Certificates. 16mo. Syracuse. $0.50 

H. Barnard. Compulsory School Attend- 
ance. 12mo. Hartford. Cloth. $1.00 

Official Reports — as Superintendent 

of Common Schools in Connecticut, 
1 vol.; as Commissioner of Public 
Schools, E. I., 1 vol.; as National Com- 
missioner of Education, 3 vols. Each 
volume, 8vo. Cloth $4.50 

The Bible in the Public Schools. Align- 
ments in the case of John P. Minor et 
al. V. The Board of Education of the 
City of Cincinnati et al., in the Su- 
perior Court of Cincinnati; with the 
Opinion and Pecision of the Court. 
8vo. Cincinnati. $2.00 

Arguments of Ifessrs. Bamsey, 

Sage, and King in the above case in 
favor of the use of the Bible. 8vo. 
Cincinnati. $0.50 

Ai^guments of Messrs. Stallo, Hoadly, 

and Matthews in the above case against 
the use of the Bible. 8vo. Cincinuati. 
$0.50 

Opinion and Pecision of the Supreme 

Court of Ohio in the above case. 8vo. 
Cincinnati. $0.25 

Goold Brown. Grammar of English 
Grammars. 8vo. N. Y. Sheep. $6.25 

Chas. L. Brace. The Pangerous Glasses 
of New York, and Twenty Years^ Work 
among them. 12mo. N. Y. Cloth. $2.50 

Classical Studies. By a Scotch Graduate. 
12mo. N. Y. $J.5J 

Conferences pedctgogiques de Paris en 
1880. Rapports et proc'es - verbaux. 
12mo. Paris. $0.75 

Victor Cousin. Lectures on the True, the 
Beautiful, and the Good. Translated 
by Wight. 8vo. N. Y. Cloth. $2.00 

Chas. Dickens. Schools and School- 
masters. Edited by T. J. Chapman. 
12mo. N. Y. Cloth. $1.25 

R. Dulon. Aus Amerika ilber Schule, 
deutsche Schrde, am,erikanische Schule, 
unddeutsch-amerikanische Schule. 8vo. 
Leipzig. $1.65 
328 



A. dn Mesnil. Congres international de 
Bruxelles. Lettre a M. Jules Ferry, 
ministre de V instruction publique et des 
beaux-arts. 8vo. Paris. $0.75 

Jahrbuch des Vereins fUr xcissenschaft- 
liche Pddagogik. 1880. Zillek. 8vo. 
Langensalza. $1.85 

G. Jest. Les Congres des Lnstitideurs 
allemands. Paris. I2mo. $0.75 

Horace Mann. Annual Reports on Edu- 
cation fr&m 1839—1848. 8vo. Boston. 
Cloth. $3.00 

Lectures and Annual Reports oa 

Education. 8vo. Boston. Cloth. $3.00 

A. D. Mayo and T. Vickers. The Bible 
in the Public Schools. 12mo. N. Y. 
Paper. $0.25 

National Educational Association. Ad- 
dresses and Journal of Proceedings. 
1858—1880. Each $2.90 
Some of the best specimens of American 

pedagogy are to be found in these volumes. 

Pddagogisches Jahrbuch. 1880. 8vo. 

Wien. $1.10 
Pddagogischer Jahresbericht von 1879. 

DiTTES. 8vo. Leipzig. $3.70 
Plato. The Republic. 16mo. London. 

Cloth. $1.25 
" Cest le plus beau traite d'educatlon qu'on 
ait jamais fait." Rousseau. 

The Regents' Questions. 1866 to 1876. 
Being the Questions for the Preliminary 
Examinations for admission to the 
University of the State of New York, 
prepared by the Regents of the Uni- 
versity. Compiled by D. J. Pkatt. 18mo. 
Syracuse. $1.00 

Regents' Reports on the Academies and 
Colleges of New York together with the 
Proceedings and Addresses at the An- 
nual Convocations. By far the most 
complete and detailed educational 
reports ever published. 1837 — 1876. 
8vo. Albany. Price variable accord- 
ing to scarcity of volumes. 

S. Smiles. Thrift. 12rao. N.Y. Cloth.$1.25 
Should be on every teacher's desk for oc- 
casional reading. 

Meta Wellmer. Peutsche Erzieherinnen 
und deren Wirkungskreis. 8vo. Leip- 
zig. $0.75 

L. Wiese. Verordnungen und Gesetze fiXr 
die hiJheren Schxden in Preussen. 8vo. 
2 vols. Berlin. $3.70. —Singly: I. Pie 
Schule. $1.85. II. Pas Lehramt und 
der Lehrer. $1.85 

Peutsche Briefe ilber englische Er- 

ziehung, nebst einem Anhang iXber bel- 
gische Schulen. 8vo. Berlin. $1.00 



THE DICTIONAEY OF EDUCATION AND INSTRUCTION 



NOTICE. 

It is due to Prof. Payne to state here that, in addition to the 
publications mentioned in the List, a number of books of the highest 
importance were originally enumerated by him; the fact, however, 
that they are out of print and difficult to obtain dictated their omis- 
sion from the present list, which is designed to be practically avail- 
able, in that the publications mentioned therein are such as can easily 
be obtained through any bookseller. 

Copies of old and valuable educational publications needed for 
libraries may, however, be obtained frequently from dealers in 
second-hand books, and the undersigned — having direct connections 
with all countries — offer their services in procuring such, and invite 
the filing of lists of publications thus desired second-hand as oppor- 
tunity may offer. 

To the statement elsewhere made that this list is to be revised 
for future editions, we will here add that Prof. Payne proposes also 
to give suggestions for the formation of the best selection of 20, 50, 
or 100 volumes of educational and reference books for the use of 
teachers*); and we shall be glad to transmit to him for consideration 
the opinions which practical educators, librarians, and others may 
see fit to express to us on the blank form issued for that purpose. 

E. STEIGER & CO. 



*) In 1880, Prof. Payne recommended the folio wiug List of ''Ten Books for 
Teachers": 

1) The Cydopcedia of Education. $5.00. — 2) Laurie's Primary Instruction. 
$1.80. — 3) Quick's Educational Reformers. $2.00. — 4) Page's Theory and 
Practice. $1.50. — 5) Cvskrik'q Common School Education. $2.40. — 6) Donald- 
son's Lectures on Education. $1.40. — 7) Bakdeen, Common School Law. $0.50, — 
8) Calkins' Primary/ Object Lessons. $1.25.-9) Kennedy, Xc/iooZ a >?r? Pam%. 
fl 00. — 10) Huntington's JJnconsciaus Tuition. $0.15. 

329 



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ALGEBRA. GEOMETRY, 

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CALCULUS. 

By SIMON NEWCOMB, Prof, of ]Mathematics U. S. Navy, 
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From the Latest Revised English Edition. With an Exhaustive Analysis, 
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By THOMAS D. SUPPLEE. 

1 Vol. 400 pages. Net price $1.00. 
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tele: ^:E:ive:ii> of' ^^iis^gml 

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Sanders^ Union Header s, 

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APPLETOi^S' SCHOOL READERS, 

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By WM. T. HARRIS, Supt. Public Schools, 
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Supt, of Instruction, Cleveland, O.; MARK 
JBAILEYf Instructor in Elocution, Yale 
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APPLETONS' GEOGRAPHIES. 

AMERICAN STANDARD SERIES. 
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Industrial Courses in 

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These are charming books for awakening 
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Cornell's Geographies; Appletons' Arithmetics; Quackenbos's Histories; 
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Our list embraces standard works representing every department of studj' from 
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SPENCER. 



Education: 

Intellectual, Moral and Physical. 

By HERBERT SPENCER, 

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One volume, 12mo. 283 pages Price, SI. 25. 

Contents: I. What Knowledge is of Most Worth ? IT. Intellectual Education; III. 
Moral Education; IV. Physical Education. 




VOL UME XXV. "rXTEBNA TIOXAL SCIEXTIFIC SETiJES." 

Education as a Science. 

By ALEXANDER BAIN, LL.D., 

PROFESSOR OF LOGIC IN THE UNIVERSITY OF ABERDEEN. 

One volume, 12mo, 453 pages Price, ^l.T.'S. 

Contents: I. Scope of the Science of Education; II. Bearings of Physiology; 111. 
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Methods; IX. The Mother Tongue; X. The Value of the Classics; XI. The 
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Proportions, Appendix, Further Examples of the Object-Lesson, Passing Ex- 
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Principles and Practice of Teaching. 

By JAMES JOHONNOT. * 
One volume, 12mo, cloth, 396 pages.. Price, Si. 50. 



Contents: I. What ia Education; II. The Mental Powers: their Order of Devel- 
opment, and the Method?; most conducive to Normal Growth; III. Objective 
Teaching: its Methods, Aims, and Principles; IV. Subjective Teaching: its 
Aims and Place in the Course of Instruction; V. Object Lessons: their Value 
and Limitations; VI. Relative Value of the Different Studies in a Course of 
Instruction; VII. Pestalozzi, and his Contributions to Educational Science; 
VIII. Froebel and the Kindergarten; IX. Agassiz; and Science in its Relation 
to Teaching; X. Contrasted Systems of Education; XL Physical Culture; XII. 
Esthetic Culture; XIII. Moral Culture; XIV. A Course of Study; XV. Country 
Schools. 

Art of School Management. 

A Text-Book fur Normal ScTiools and Normallndiiufes. A Hand- 
and Reference-Book for Teachers, School-Officers and Parents. 

By J. BALDWIN," 

PRESIDENT OF THE STATE NORMAL SCHOOL, KIRKS VILLE, MO. 

One volume, 12mo, 504 pages Price, $1.50. 

Contents: I. Educational Instrumentalities; TI. School Organization; III. School 
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Dymond's Moral Philosophy. Essays on 
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Kirkham's Grammar. English Grammar 
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BOWSER'S ANALYTIC GEOMETRY. 

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BOWSER'S DIFFERENTIAL AND IN- 
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PLATTNER'S BLOW-PIPE ANALYSIS. 

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Plattner's Manual of Qualitative and 
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NAQUET'S LEGAL CHEMISTRY. 

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Legal Chemistry. A Guide to the Detection of 
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PLYMPTON'S BLOW-PIPE ANALYSIS. 

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ELIOT AND STORER'S QUALITATIVE 
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A CoMPENDiocrs Manual op Qualitative 
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I 



RAMMELSBERG'S CHEMICAL 
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8vo. Cloth. $2.25 
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ATT WOOD'S PRACTICAL BLOW-PIPE 
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PRESCOTT'S PROXIMATE ORGANIC 
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PRESCOTT'S QUALITATIVE 
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WEBSTEE'S UNABRIDGED DICTIONARY. 






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The following from page 1164, shows the value of 
the Illustrative Definitions in Webster. 




1, flying jib; 2, jib; 3, fore-top-maat-stay sail; 
4, fore-course; 5, foretop sail; 6, foretop-gallant sail; 
7, fore-royal; 8, fore sky-sail; 9, fore-royal studding 
sail; 10, foretop-gallant studding-sail; 11, foretop- 
mast studding-sail; 12, main-course; 13, maintop- 
sail; 14, maintop-gallant sail; 15, main-royal; 16, 
main sky-sail; 17, main royal studding-sail; 18, 
main top-gallant studding-sail ; 19, maintop-mast 
studding sail; 20, mizzen-course; 21, mizzen-top sail; 
22, mizzen-top-gallant sail ; 23, mizzen-royal ; 24, 
mizzen sky-sail; 25, mizzen-sp anker. 

New Edition of WEBSTER, has 

1 1 8,000Words, 3000 Engravings, 

4600 ^e\\ Words and Meaning's, 

Biographical Dictionary 
of over 9700 Names. 

Published by G. & C MERRIAM, 

SPRINGFIELD, Mass. 



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AMERICAN POEMS. Selections of entire 
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and Emerson. With Biographical 
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AMERICAN PROSE. Selections from the 
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BALLADS AND LYRICS. Selected bj 
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price, 95 cents. 
A very attractive collection of about one 
hundred and fifty of the best ballads and lyrics, 
placed generally in chronological order, begin- 
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POETRY FOR CHILDREN. Edited by 
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16mo, 327 pages, illustrated with sixty 
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These "Leaflets" comprise short poems 

and a few prose passages from Longfellow's 

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are alsoput up in a box in single leaves for 

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SIX STORIES FROM THE ARABIAN 
NIGHTS. Edited by Samuel Eliot, 
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price, 45 cents. 

SIX POPULAR TALES. Two Series. 
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We take leave of this interesting volume 
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A HAND-BOOK OF LEGENDARY AND MYTHOLOGICAL ART. By Clara 
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OUR POETICAL FAVORITES. Edited by Rev. A. C. KENn)RicK, D.D. Household 
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This admirable collection of choice poetry is equal to the great single-volume collec- 
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ASPECTS OF GERMAN CULTURE. A volume of Essays and Criticisms. By G. 
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HOW TO PARSE. 

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M^TZNER'S ENGLISH GRAMMAR, 

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A PARAGRAPH HISTORY OF THE AMERICAN 

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German in the Public Schools, 

The Ahn-Henn German Course with its alternating" exercises 

for translation meets the expectations of the friends of German in- 
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The Ahn-Hexn books combine all the qualities needed to 
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I prefer Ahx's method, because it introduces the learner to language before it 
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given by . 

The exercises in Ahn's books in letter -writing, business forms, advertisements, 
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"We have been using the Ahn-Henn German series for some three years. Our 
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We, last year, began the introduction of your German series — the Ahn-Henn 
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(Chas. C. Snyder, Supt. of Schools, Freeport, 111.) 

"We use your Ahn-Henn series of German Books. I consider it the best course 
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I desire to tell you of my own free will that I have used the Ahn-Henn German 
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common schools. (Wm. McK. Blake, Supt. of Schools, New Castle, Ind.) 

"We are using very successfully Ahn-Henn's German Method, which we prefer 
to any other work we have seen. 

(W. W. Sharpe, Prin. Orwell Normal Institute, Orwell, 0.) 

"We have concluded to use Ahn's German Series in the Mansfield Normal 
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Many similar testimonials have been sent to the Publishers. More 
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AHirS Latin Grammar. By Dr. P. 

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Witli a Uollection of Latin Proverbs and\ . . ••■i •. .. ^ ^ ^ , 

Quotations. By Dr. P. Henn. ( To be"®^^' ^ " supplied to teachers 

used with the First and Second Latin,only upon their direct application to the 
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^^^ Thorough Study of Latin made easy. "^^ 

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necessary. Hence the wide-spread demand for a grammar tJiat contains every thing 
of inipovtance (ov all learners, including those who contemplate a collegiate course of 
stiidy, while it studiously omits tnaiters of disputed usac/e, the study of which 
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AHN'S Latin Oranininr and the other books of this Latin Course are the reali" 
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features: 

1. The best Orthography is exhibited; Quantity is marked throughout, besides 
Syllabiflcation and Accent in paradigms. 

2. Etymology is carefully treated. Without being cumbersome, this Course is 
beli'^ved to be more full and complete, especially in the illustrative examples in 
Declension and Conjugation than any other Latin grammar now in use. On these 
points a comparison will show how simple, practical, and clear it is. 

3. The Derivative Endings (Word-formation) are thoroughly illustrated and 
classified. 

4. Syntax is logically treated in every part. Though brief, it is very comprehensive 
and so clear in its statements that this subject, generally considered so difficult, is easily 
understood. The construction of Prepositions, commonly left to the Dictionary, receives 
here, for the first time, the attention that is its due in a school -grammar. 

5. The clear and compendious description of the Metres, and especially the full 
Alphabetical Index of Subjects are very important. 

6 The usefulness of the-se books is increased by judicious typographical arrange- 
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AHN'S Latin Course fiii-nishes an excellent preparation to any of the Latin 
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when the groundwork has been securely learned from the AHN Course. 

Particular attention is invited to the Wall Charts and the Vocabulary which are 
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Samples of Type used in the AHN-HENN Latin Course. 

467. All words which may be grouped into one 
family so as to associate their meaning are said to 
have a common ground-form or Root. Thus: 
acGo, -ere, to whet acus, -us, a needle 

acutus, -a, -urn, sharp acer, -ris, -re, sharp 

acuineii, -Tuts, acuteness acerbus, -a, -um, sharp 

acies, -ei, an edge acidiis, -&, -iini, sour 

may all be retraced to the ROOT AC. 

4:08. The Stem must be distinguished from the Root. The 
stem is tliat part of the word which remains after taking away the 
Inflections^ as: acii-ere, to whet, stem acu. . Again, the root is that 
part of the word which remains after taking away the Suffix; thus 
the verb-stem acii belongs to the root AC. 



927. Horace uses the Hexameter in his Epistles and Satires. 
The Odes include nineteen varieties of strophe, viz.: 
1. Alcaic Strophe, consisting of: 

Two Greater Alcaics \ ^ ' ~^ ^ - 11^ ^ ^ |I w| y ( ^.^^ ^^ 

One Trochaic Dimeter with anacrusis u: 1kj1d\1\j1d 
One Lesser Alcaic L kj \j \ 1 kj ^ \ 1 kj \ lo «>^5. 9 

Justi^m et tenacem propositi viriini 
Non civiit7?i ardor prava jubentiiim 
Non viiltus instantis t^Tanni 
Mente quatit solida neqi^e Aiister. 

From Vocabularies to Third Latin Book. ' From ludex to Latin Grammar. 



a, ab (with abl), from, by 
abditus, -S, -uni, hid 

abdomen, -iiiTs (n.), the abdomen 

abduco, abduxi, al)ductuin, ab- 

dCicere, to carry aiuay; to take 



ad venire, with in t ace, 690 
adventu, abl. of time, 673 
Adverbial accusative, 586; phra- 
ses, 431 
Adverbs, 32, 424-446; derivation 



aberro, -avi, -atum, -are, to go I of, 425-434; from adjectives of 
abhinc, ago [astray ; the 1st & 2d decl., 425; of the 3d 

decl., 426; of time, 437; of man- 
ner ^ 438; of order, 242; nu- 
meral, 241; of place, 436; used 
as 2:)reposUions, 436; compari- 
son, 440-442; with gen., 566. e; 
correlative, 439; position, 562 
Adversative conjunctions, 451,853 



the abdomen, abdomen 

to abet, adjuvare 

ability, facultas 

to be able, posse, quire; not to be 

able, nequire 
an abode, domicilium 



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" America has done what Britain ought long ago to have accomplished. It 
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" The book is in every way an honor to the profession. It will make its 
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" We, the undersigned. Teachers of Randolph County, Ind., after a practical 
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